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final definitions psych.pdf Flashcards
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final definitions psych.pdf Flashcards
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What is motivation?
A driving force that prompts one to do something.
What are instincts?
Biologically built in impulses that lead to relatively inflexible behaviors.
Who are ethologists?
People who study animal behavior.
What are fixed action patterns?
Relatively inflexible behaviors that are produced by instincts.
What does drive theory or drive reduction theory suggest?
It suggests that when we feel a lack, this creates a tension or drive that we find unpleasant, so we try to reduce this drive and restore a state of contentment.
What is homeostasis?
A state of balance or contentment.
What is an approach-approach conflict?
Occurs when there are two or more attractive choices and one must choose between them.
What is an avoidance-avoidance conflict?
Occurs when there are multiple choices and one doesn't want any of them, but one must choose.
What is an approach-avoidance conflict?
Occurs when one desires to both approach and avoid a particular option.
What does arousal theory propose?
Eysenck's theory that suggests that people desire an optimal state of arousal and so might seek out relaxing activities to reduce arousal or exciting activities to raise arousal.
What is an incentive?
A reward that motivates behavior.
What is intrinsic motivation?
Motivation that comes from within, such as playing the piano because one enjoys it.
What is extrinsic motivation?
Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as a reward or a threat.
What is the overjustification effect?
The tendency for intrinsic motivation to fall as extrinsic motivation rises.
What is the hierarchy of needs according to Maslow's theory?
It suggests that people desire to fulfill physiological needs first, then safety needs, then social needs, then esteem needs. Once all other needs are met, people desire to reach their full potential (self-actualization).
What is self-actualization?
An aspect of the humanistic perspective that involves fulfilling one's potential.
What is the cycle of family violence?
The tendency for people who are abused as children to be more likely to be abusive toward their own family members.
What is the norm of reciprocity?
The tendency to behave toward others as they have behaved toward us.
What is displaced aggression?
Occurs if we are angry with one target but behave aggressively toward another target.
What is triggered displaced aggression?
Occurs if we are angry with one target but behave aggressively toward another target who commits a minor offense (the trigger).
What is frustration?
The feeling that tends to emerge when one's progress toward a goal is blocked.
What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
It suggests that frustration always leads to aggression and that aggression is always the result of frustration.
What is relative deprivation?
Feeling deprived compared to others.
What is observational learning or modeling?
Refers to the fact that we can learn by watching others.
What are schemas?
Knowledge frameworks that organize what we know.
What is hostile attribution bias?
The tendency to perceive hostility in the ambiguous actions of others.
What is priming?
The activation or bringing to mind of thoughts and feelings.
What is the weapons effect?
The tendency for people who are angry to be more aggressive when weapons are present.
What is disinhibition?
An impairment of mechanisms that normally inhibit aggression.
What is alcohol myopia?
A reduced ability to consider all of the available information when one is intoxicated.
What is desensitization?
Refers to the fact that we get used to things and so might be less distressed by violence after we've seen a great deal of it.
What is deindividuation?
Having one's identity hidden, such as when one is wearing a disguise, is under the cover of darkness, or is lost in a crowd.
What is dehumanization?
Viewing a person or a group of people as less than human.
What is catharsis?
The mistaken idea that being aggressive will get aggression out of one's system and so reduce future aggression.
What is positive psychology?
The perspective that psychology should not only study problems such as depression but should also investigate and encourage positive phenomena such as happiness, gratitude, and forgiveness.
What is cognitive development?
Development that pertains to thinking.
What is physical development?
Development that pertains to physical growth or declines.
What is socioemotional development?
Development that pertains to relationships and feelings.
What is assimilation?
Using an existing schema to understand something new.
What is accommodation?
Changing an existing schema in light of something new that doesn't fit the current schema.
What is the sensorimotor stage?
The first stage in Piaget's model in which children begin to integrate motor behaviors with sensory experiences.
What is object permanence?
The understanding that objects continue to exist even if they cannot be seen.
What is the preoperational stage?
The second stage in Piaget's model in which children learn to use symbols and begin to develop a theory of mind, but tend to be egocentric and have difficulty with operational thinking.
What is dual representation?
To think of an object in two ways, such as thinking of a model airplane as an object in and of itself and as a representation of a real airplane.
What are conservation tasks?
Used to test whether children recognize that certain features of objects don’t change and are conserved even when other features do change.
What is centration?
The tendency of preoperational children to focus on one feature of an object while ignoring other features.
What is theory of mind?
An understanding that other people have desires and beliefs that influence behavior.
What is egocentrism?
The tendency to view the world from one's own perspective.
What is the three mountains task?
Used to investigate egocentrism in the preoperational stage where a child views a model of three mountains from all sides.
What is the false belief task?
Used to investigate egocentrism in the preoperational stage where children learn something that one of the story characters doesn’t know.
What is the concrete operational stage?
The third stage in Piaget’s model in which children have mastered many cognitive skills that preoperational children had not yet developed.
What is the formal operational stage?
The fourth stage in Piaget's model in which adolescents begin to be able to think about abstract ideas and hypothetical possibilities.
What is adolescent egocentrism?
The tendency for adolescents to be very interested in themselves, their appearance, their activities, and to think that others share this interest.
What is the imaginary audience?
An aspect of adolescent egocentrism where one views themselves as being in the spotlight and everyone else as the audience.
What is personal fable?
An aspect of adolescent egocentrism, the belief that one is unique and special, perhaps so different that no one else can understand one's thoughts and feelings.
What is the zone of proximal development?
In Vygotsky's theory, the difference between what a child can do independently and what a child can do with the assistance of a teacher.
What is scaffolding?
In Vygotsky's theory, providing less help when a child can do something alone and more help when the child needs it.
What is private speech?
In Vygotsky's theory, children speaking to themselves and mentoring themselves by offering helpful and encouraging comments.
What is the preconventional level in Kohlberg's model of moral development?
The first level where reasoning is based on punishments or rewards that they might receive.
What is the conventional level in Kohlberg's model of moral development?
The second level where reasoning is based on societal norms.
What is the postconventional level in Kohlberg's model of moral development?
The third level where reasoning is based on a personal moral code composed of abstract moral principles such as justice and respect for others.
What does Erikson's psychosocial model suggest?
It suggests that there are eight stages of development and in each stage there is a challenge that involves an opportunity to develop a psychological strength.
What are reflexive smiles?
Smiles that seem to be due to internal states and probably don’t reflect happiness.
What are social smiles?
Smiles in response to external events, e.g., their mother's face.
What is stranger anxiety?
A fear of strangers that tends to occur at approximately nine months.
What is separation anxiety or separation protest?
A young child's distress at being separated from his or her primary caregiver.
What is social referencing?
A phenomenon in which infants read the emotional expressions of others and use this information to determine what to do.
What is attachment?
The close bond that develops between infants and their primary caregivers, typically their mothers.
What is the internal working model?
A mental framework that is thought to provide the basis for future relationships.
What is the strange situation?
A technique for identifying attachment style in which an infant and his or her mother are taken to an unfamiliar room.
What is a securely attached child?
An attachment style where infants become upset when their mother leaves but are easily comforted when she returns, presumably because they have a good attachment.
What is an insecure-avoidant child?
An attachment style where infants don't seem to care whether their mother is in the room or not, presumably because they have a poor attachment.
What is an insecure-resistant child?
An attachment style where infants become upset when their mother leaves but are not easily comforted when she returns and seem conflicted about whether they want to be close to her or not.
What is reciprocal socialization?
The fact that parents and children influence each other.
What is temperament?
Fundamental traits, e.g., emotionality, activity that are apparent in infancy.
What is the conscious mind?
What we are currently thinking about.
What is the preconscious mind?
Material that we know and could think about but that is not currently in the conscious mind.
What is the unconscious mind?
The part of the mind that is not currently accessible.
What does the unconscious contain according to the psychodynamic perspective?
The unconscious contains sexual and aggressive drives, forbidden wishes, and memories of traumatic events.
What is the Id in psychodynamic theory?
The Id is the aspect of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle, where the goal is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
What does the Ego represent in psychodynamic perspective?
The Ego is the aspect of personality that operates according to the reality principle, taking into account limitations of the real world when trying to satisfy desires.
What does the Superego consider in psychodynamic theory?
The Superego considers morality and ethics, including the ego ideal which encourages us to do right and the conscience which discourages us from doing wrong.
What is the Freudian psychodynamic perspective?
Freud's personality perspective which emphasizes aspects of personality that are active and in conflict.
What is fixation in psychodynamic theory?
Fixation is psychic energy that is stuck at a psychosexual stage of development causing characteristics of that stage to be present in the adult personality.
What occurs during the Oral stage of Freud's psychosexual development?
The Oral stage occurs from birth to approximately 18 months, where sexual pleasure is obtained through the mouth.
What is the Anal stage in Freud's psychosexual theory?
The Anal stage occurs from approximately 18 months to 3 years, where sexual pleasure is derived from the anus and the child must negotiate the challenges of toilet training.
What characterizes an Anal expulsive personality?
An Anal expulsive personality is messy and hostile because the anal stage was not negotiated properly.
What characterizes an Anal retentive personality?
An Anal retentive personality is frugal and orderly because the anal stage was not negotiated properly.
What is the Phallic stage in Freud's psychosexual stages?
The Phallic stage occurs from approximately 3 to 5 years old, where pleasure is derived from the genitals and the child becomes interested in the opposite sex parent.
What is the Oedipus complex?
The Oedipus complex is a boy's sexual interest in his mother and desire to take his father's place.
What is castration anxiety in psychodynamic theory?
Castration anxiety is a boy's fear that his father will castrate him.
What does identification refer to in psychodynamic theory?
Identification refers to a desire to become like the same sex parent.
What is the Electra complex?
The Electra complex is a girl's sexual interest in her father and desire to take her mother's place.
What is the latency stage in Freud's psychosexual stages?
The latency stage occurs from approximately 6 to 13 years old; it's a calm period where children learn gender-appropriate behaviors and develop other interests.
What is the genital stage in Freud's psychosexual theory?
The genital stage is the last of Freud's psychosexual stages occurring around puberty when pleasure is received from the genitals less selfishly, and people develop greater control over their desires.
What is reality anxiety in psychodynamic perspective?
Reality anxiety is anxiety caused by danger in the real world.
What is neurotic anxiety in psychodynamic theory?
Neurotic anxiety is an unconscious fear that we will not be able to control our Id's desires, leading to negative consequences.
What is moral anxiety according to psychodynamic theory?
Moral anxiety is shame or guilt we feel for violating or fearing we will violate our moral principles.
What are defense mechanisms in psychodynamic theory?
Defense mechanisms are unconscious processes that distort reality to help cope with something threatening.
What is repression in psychodynamic theory?
Repression is the primary defense mechanism involving keeping something upsetting out of consciousness.
What is denial as a defense mechanism?
Denial is a defense mechanism that involves refusing to accept reality.
What does reaction formation involve as a defense mechanism?
Reaction formation involves reacting in a manner opposite to one's feelings to safeguard against the discovery of true feelings.
What is rationalization in psychodynamic defense mechanisms?
Rationalization involves generating an excuse to try to justify wrong behavior.
What does intellectualization mean in psychodynamic theory?
Intellectualization is taking a detached intellectual perspective to avoid threatening emotional content.
What is projection in psychodynamic theory?
Projection involves casting our undesirable characteristics onto other people.
What does displacement mean in psychodynamic defense mechanisms?
Displacement involves redirecting distressing behaviors or feelings toward a more acceptable target.
What is sublimation in psychodynamic theory?
Sublimation involves translating a distressing desire into an acceptable form.
What is the hierarchy of responses according to Miller and Dollard's theory?
A set of possible behaviors with behaviors that are more likely to lead to rewards being more likely to be performed.
What are primary drives?
Primary drives are drives to obtain things that are naturally rewarding, such as food.
What are secondary drives or acquired drives?
Secondary drives are drives to obtain things we have learned to find rewarding, such as money.
What does reinforcement value refer to in Rotter's theory?
Reinforcement value is the value we place on a reward.
What is expectancy in Rotter's theory?
Expectancy is what we think about the likelihood of receiving a reward.
What is locus of control?
Locus of control is the degree to which we think our actions matter.
What is self-efficacy according to Bandura?
Self-efficacy is one’s confidence that one can succeed.
What is reciprocal determinism in Bandura's theory?
Reciprocal determinism is the idea that personality, behavior, and the environment influence one another.
What does existential philosophy explore?
Existential philosophy explores ideas about the meaning of existence.
What is the phenomenological perspective?
The phenomenological perspective emphasizes the importance of subjective perceptions of reality.
What is self-actualization in humanistic theory?
Self-actualization involves fulfilling one’s potential.
What are peak experiences?
Peak experiences are powerful experiences of wonder, well-being, or insight.
What is positive regard?
Positive regard is love and respect from other people.
What is unconditional positive regard?
Unconditional positive regard is care and approval given unconditionally.
What is conditional positive regard?
Conditional positive regard is care and approval given only under certain conditions.
What is person-centered therapy?
Person-centered therapy, also known as client-centered therapy or Rogerian therapy, is a type of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers suggesting people need an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard.
What is logotherapy?
Logotherapy is a type of existential therapy developed by Victor Frankl that emphasizes the importance of finding meaning in life.
What are personal constructs?
Personal constructs are concepts we use to understand the world.
What is constructive alternativism?
Constructive alternativism is the idea that different constructs can be used to understand the world.
What is the Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test)?
The Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test) is a test developed by George Kelly to identify personal constructs.
What is client-centered therapy?
Client-centered therapy, now called person-centered therapy, is a type of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers that requires an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard.
What is unconditional positive regard in therapy?
Unconditional positive regard is giving a person unconditional approval as part of client-centered therapy.
What does existential therapy encourage?
Existential therapy encourages people to recognize their freedom and responsibility to make choices and pursue meaning.
What is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of therapy that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques.
What does an eclectic therapist do?
An eclectic therapist draws on a variety of orientations or techniques.
What is the diathesis-stress model?
The diathesis-stress model suggests psychological disorders are caused by a predisposition (diathesis) combined with environmental factors (stress).
What are anxiety disorders?
Anxiety disorders are a group of disorders characterized by the presence of anxiety.
What is a phobia?
A phobia is characterized by irrational and intense fear.
What is a specific phobia?
A specific phobia is characterized by fear of specific stimuli or situations, such as fear of spiders or heights.
What is social phobia or social anxiety disorder?
Social phobia is characterized by extreme and unreasonable anxiety in social situations.
What are culture-bound disorders?
Culture-bound disorders are limited to a specific culture.
What is behavioral inhibition?
Behavioral inhibition is fear toward new situations.
What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?
The HPA axis is involved in hormonal responses to stress and is more active in people with a tendency toward anxiety.
What is observational learning or modeling?
Observational learning or modeling is demonstrating a behavior so that another person can learn by observation.
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement is a type of reward that involves the removal of something unpleasant.
What is exposure therapy?
Exposure therapy is a treatment for phobia or anxiety where people confront their fear.
What is flooding in exposure therapy?
Flooding is a type of exposure therapy where people are exposed to the feared stimulus in a sudden and intense manner.
What is systematic desensitization?
Systematic desensitization is a type of exposure therapy in which people gradually confront increasingly anxiety-provoking situations.
What is the hierarchy of fears?
The hierarchy of fears is a list of possibilities that vary in how frightening they are.
What is virtual reality exposure therapy?
Virtual reality exposure therapy uses technology to simulate the anxiety-provoking situation.
What is in vivo exposure?
In vivo exposure involves real exposure as compared to virtual reality.
What does modeling mean in psychological context?
Modeling is demonstrating a behavior so that another person can learn by observation.
What is cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring involves identifying and changing irrational negative thoughts to more reasonable and beneficial thoughts.
What is attention training in cognitive therapy?
Attention training is a technique that teaches people with social phobia to shift their attention away from threatening information.
What is panic disorder?
Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent attacks of intense anxiety.
What is depersonalization in the context of panic attacks?
Depersonalization is a symptom of panic attacks where a person feels separated from his or her self.
What is Agoraphobia?
A fear of being out in public that sometimes accompanies panic disorder.
What is Anxiety sensitivity?
The belief that anxiety has negative social (e.g., it's embarrassing) or physical (e.g., I might damage my heart) consequences even after the anxious episode is over.
What is Interoceptive sensitivity?
Sensitivity to body sensations.
What are Catastrophic misinterpretations?
Extreme and incorrect interpretations for ambiguous body sensations.
What is Interoceptive conditioning?
Classical conditioning in which subtle body sensations become associated with panic attacks and can trigger future panic attacks.
What is Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
A disorder precipitated by a traumatic event and characterized by stress-related symptoms (e.g., flashbacks, nightmares, feelings of fear or guilt).
What is Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)?
A disorder characterized by anxiety-provoking obsessions and compulsive thoughts or behaviors that temporarily relieve the anxiety.
What are Obsessions?
Unwanted intrusive thoughts, desires, or images that tend to provoke anxiety.
What are Compulsions?
Behaviors or thoughts that temporarily relieve the anxiety caused by obsessions.
What is a Neutralizing act?
A type of compulsion that involves counteracting or undoing the obsession, such as thinking a good thought to wipe out a bad thought.
What is Inflated responsibility in the context of OCD?
A symptom of OCD that pertains to the tendency to take responsibility for an outcome, no matter how small one's role might have been.
What is Thought action fusion?
A symptom of OCD that includes the idea that having an unwanted bad thought is as bad as doing the action, as well as the idea that thinking about an outcome can make it happen.
What is Overestimation of threat in OCD?
A symptom of OCD that involves feeling that an intrusive thought could lead to severe consequences.
What is Exposure and response prevention (ERP)?
A treatment for OCD that involves exposure to a feared stimulus and prevention of the response (the compulsion normally used to reduce anxiety).
What does comorbidity refer to?
Multiple disorders occurring at the same time.
What are Mood Disorders?
A category of emotional disorders characterized by extremes along a continuum from sadness to happiness.
What is Major depressive disorder?
A severe depression that lasts at least two weeks; major depression can be recurrent or a single episode.
What is Psychomotor retardation?
A symptom of depression that involves thinking and moving slowly.
What is Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)?
A subtype of major depression in which people become depressed in the winter when the days are shorter but recover in the spring.
What is Dysthymia?
A type of depression that is less severe than major depression but longer lasting.
What is Cognitive theory in relation to depression?
Beck's theory that depression is caused by irrational and negative thoughts.
What is the Negative cognitive triad?
Beck suggested that depressed people display negative views of themselves, negative views of the world, and negative views of the future.
What is a Schema?
A cognitive structure that influences how we interpret and remember information.
What are Automatic thoughts?
Thoughts that spring to mind easily.
What is Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)?
A type of cognitive behavior therapy in which the therapist disputes the client's irrational thoughts and also encourages beneficial behavior.
What are Musts in the context of REBT?
Views that aspects of one's life must be a certain way, which are addressed in rational emotive behavior therapy.
What is Learned helplessness?
A perception of helplessness brought on by negative events that one cannot control.
What is the Reformulated learned helplessness model?
It suggests that the attributions people make about negative events determine whether or not they will become depressed.
What are Attributions?
Judgments about the cause of events, which can be internal, external, stable, unstable, global, or specific.
What is Depressive attributional style?
A style of thinking associated with depression that involves making internal, stable, global attributions for negative events.
What is Light therapy?
A treatment for depression in which people are exposed to bright light.
What is Cognitive restructuring?
Identifying and changing irrational negative thoughts to more reasonable and beneficial thoughts.
What is Attribution retraining?
A type of cognitive restructuring that focuses on changing attributions (judgments about the causes of events).
What are Homework tasks in therapy?
Tasks that people complete between therapy sessions, such as recording one's thoughts about events, evaluating those thoughts, and recording revised thoughts.
What is a Manic episode?
A period of unjustified elevated mood and increased energy that lasts at least a week.
What is Grandiosity?
High self-esteem or self-importance.
What is Pressured speech?
Rapid speech.
What are Flight of ideas?
Racing thoughts.
What is a Hypomanic episode?
Similar to manic episodes but less severe and of shorter duration.
What is Euthymia?
A normal mood state, neither depressed nor manic.
What is Family focused therapy (FFT)?
Therapy for family members of a client that emphasizes psychoeducation and interpersonal interaction.
What is Psychoeducation?
Education to increase understanding of a disorder.
What is Family therapy?
Therapy that involves teaching family members about the client's disorder and fostering more favorable interactions.
What is Social skills training?
Training in social and occupational skills as a way of reducing social isolation.
What is Cognitive remediation?
Strategies designed to improve cognitive functioning.
What is Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?
Therapy that attempts to modify thoughts and behaviors to improve psychological health.
What are Dissociative disorders?
A category of disorders characterized by a separation in consciousness or identity.
What is Dissociative amnesia?
A dissociative disorder in which the person cannot remember personal information.
What is Dissociative fugue?
A symptom that sometimes accompanies dissociative amnesia where the person travels to a new location.
What is Depersonalization-derealization disorder?
A dissociative disorder characterized by experiences of being separate from one's mind or body and/or experiences that other people or objects are unreal.
What is Dissociative identity disorder (DID)?
A dissociative disorder characterized by multiple identities.
What is the Host in dissociative identity disorder?
Typically the primary identity in dissociative identity disorder.
What are Alters in dissociative identity disorder?
The additional identities in dissociative identity disorder.
What is the trauma model in relation to dissociative identity disorder?
It suggests that dissociative identity disorder is caused by traumatic stress.
What is Paranoid Personality Disorder?
A disorder where the individual suspects without sufficient basis that others are exploiting, harming, or deceiving them, is preoccupied with unjustified doubts about loyalty or trustworthiness, and reads hidden demeaning or threatening meanings into benign remarks.
What is Schizoid Personality Disorder?
A disorder characterized by neither desiring nor enjoying close relationships, choosing solitary activities, and showing emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity.
What is Schizotypal Personality Disorder?
A disorder characterized by odd beliefs or magical thinking that influences behavior, unusual perceptual experiences, and excessive social anxiety.
What is Antisocial Personality Disorder?
A disorder indicated by failure to conform to social norms, deceitfulness, impulsivity, irritability, aggressiveness, and lack of remorse.
What is Borderline Personality Disorder?
A disorder characterized by pervasive instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, along with marked impulsivity.
What are some symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder?
Frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, unstable interpersonal relationships, identity disturbance, impulsivity in potentially self-damaging areas, recurrent suicidal behavior, and chronic feelings of emptiness.
What is Histrionic Personality Disorder?
A disorder characterized by discomfort in situations where one is not the center of attention.
What are characteristics of attention interaction with others in certain personality disorders?
Interaction with others is often characterized by inappropriate sexually seductive or provocative behavior. Displays rapidly shifting and shallow expression of emotions. Consistently uses physical appearance to draw attention to self. Has a style of speech that is excessively impressionistic and lacking in detail. Shows self dramatization, theatricality, and exaggerated expression of emotion. Is suggestible, i.e., easily influenced by others or circumstances. Considers relationships to be more intimate than they actually are.
What are the characteristics of Narcissistic Personality Disorder?
Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements). Is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love. Believes that he or she is special and unique and can only be understood by or should associate with other special or high-status people or institutions. Requires excessive admiration. Has a sense of entitlement (i.e., unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her expectations). Is interpersonally exploitative (i.e., takes advantage of others to achieve his or her own ends). Lacks empathy; is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others. Is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or her. Shows arrogant haughty behaviors or attitudes.
What are the characteristics of Avoidant Personality Disorder?
Avoids occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal contact because of fears of criticism, disapproval, or rejection. Is unwilling to get involved with people unless certain of being liked. Shows restraint within intimate relationships because of the fear of being shamed or ridiculed. Is preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in social situations. Is inhibited in new interpersonal situations because of feelings of inadequacy. Views self as socially inept, personally unappealing, or inferior to others.
What are the characteristics of Dependent Personality Disorder?
Has difficulty making everyday decisions without an excessive amount of advice and reassurance from others. Needs others to assume responsibility for most major areas of his or her life. Has difficulty expressing disagreement with others because of fear of loss of support or approval (Note: Do not include realistic fears of retribution). Has difficulty initiating projects or doing things on his or her own because of a lack of self-confidence in judgment or abilities rather than a lack of motivation or energy. Goes to excessive lengths to obtain nurturance and support from others to the point of volunteering to do things that are unpleasant. Feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone because of exaggerated fears of being unable to care for himself or herself. Urgently seeks another relationship as a source of care and support when a close relationship ends. Is unrealistically preoccupied with fears of being left to take care of himself or herself.
What are the characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)?
Is preoccupied with details, rules, lists, order, organization, or schedules to the extent that the major point of the activity is lost. Shows perfectionism that interferes with task completion (e.g., is unable to complete a project because his or her own overly strict standards are not met). Is excessively devoted to work and productivity to the exclusion of leisure activities and friendships not accounted for by obvious economic necessity. Is overconscientious, scrupulous, and inflexible about matters of morality, ethics, or values not accounted for by cultural or religious identification. Is unable to discard worn-out or worthless objects even when they have no sentimental value. Is reluctant to delegate tasks or to work with others unless they submit to exactly his or her way of doing things. Adopts a miserly spending style toward both self and others; money is viewed as something to be hoarded for future catastrophes. Shows rigidity and stubbornness.
What is black or white thinking (also called dichotomous thinking)?
Black or white thinking is a binary way of thinking when you see things in absolute terms. For example, when a young woman on a diet ate a spoonful of ice cream, she told herself, 'I've blown my diet completely'.
What is filtering in cognitive distortions?
Filtering is when we concentrate so strongly on one aspect of a task or a situation and avoid other aspects. It results in a very narrow view of the situation that limits our capacity to see the reality in its right context.
What is cognitive fusion?
Cognitive fusion occurs when we believe that every thought we have is true, when in fact they may not be so. A possible indicator of cognitive fusion is when we say, 'I'm right, and I can give you the reasons'.
What is fortune telling in cognitive distortions?
Fortune telling is when we predict that things will turn out badly.
What is mind reading in cognitive distortions?
Mind reading is when we assume we know what people think without having sufficient evidence of their thoughts, such as believing, 'He thinks I'm an idiot'. It also includes the tendency to attribute positive or negative motives to someone.
What is catastrophizing?
Catastrophizing takes place when individuals expect the worst scenario to happen; they expect disaster to strike no matter what the reality is.
What is personalization in cognitive distortions?
Personalization is when a person believes that everything others do or say is some kind of direct personal reaction to them.
What is discounting the positives?
Discounting the positives occurs when an individual focuses on the negatives and minimizes or ignores the positives. For example, one may say, 'I just got lucky that my proposal was accepted' or 'I got promoted at work only because no one else wanted it'.
What is unrealistic optimism?
Unrealistic optimism refers to an underestimation of the likelihood of experiencing negative events and to an overestimation of the probability of experiencing positive events. It is a misjudgment based on faulty understanding of real risks.
What is overgeneralizing in cognitive distortions?
Overgeneralization is defined as taking a single or a few selected negative experiences and making them universal or expecting them to be true forever. For example, an individual may say, 'I didn't have friends in middle school; I'll never have friends in high school'.
What is stereotyping?
Stereotyping is an essential feature of human memory, but it can cause problems when the attributes associated with the group are incorrectly extended to an individual. For example, 'All blond women are dumb'.
What is jumping to conclusions?
Jumping to conclusions is defined as making interpretations without actual evidence. Often, individuals will make those interpretations negative, such as claiming, 'I know my teacher doesn't like me because of the way he looks at me'.
What are hallucinations in schizophrenia?
Hallucinations can include visual (e.g., seeing people or monsters), olfactory (e.g., foul smells), gustatory (e.g., unpleasant tastes), and somatic (e.g., feeling spiders crawling on the skin) hallucinations.
What are delusions of persecution?
Delusions of persecution involve the idea that others are monitoring or trying to harm one or one's loved ones. For example, Richard might think that aliens are trying to capture him or that the CIA has planted listening devices in his house.
What are grandiose delusions?
Grandiose delusions or delusions of grandeur involve highly elevated views of one's importance. For example, Steve might think that he is William Shakespeare or that he should be the president of the United States because he knows how to solve every problem.
What is disorganized thinking in schizophrenia?
People with schizophrenia often exhibit disorganized thinking and language. Loose associations involve the person's language moving from topic to topic with little or no connection between the ideas, also known as derailment.
What is clanging in disorganized thinking?
Clanging involves linking words based on sound rather than meaning.
What is word salad in disorganized thinking?
Word salad refers to a severe breakdown of language where words seem tossed together randomly, such as 'The desk was green and down to the car but they went and afterward pencils and coffee birds all up and around'.
What is catatonic behavior in schizophrenia?
Catatonic behavior is characterized by unresponsiveness, such as sitting perfectly still for hours, but can also include intense activity, such as jumping and running around. Some people can be arranged like a wax figure and hold new positions, a phenomenon referred to as waxy flexibility.
What are positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia?
Positive symptoms are additional characteristics that are not present in most people, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking or behavior. In contrast, negative symptoms are pathological deficits, the absence of characteristics that would normally be present, such as flat affect or affective flattening, blunted affect, anhedonia, and alogia (poverty of speech).
What is the psychology of religion?
Psychologists of religion study people in relation to their faith. Religion is often regarded as more organized and collective, whereas spirituality is often regarded as more subjective and personal. Religious belief is positively related to paranormal belief, especially among those with lower religious commitment.
What is the relationship between service attendance and prayer/meditation and New Age beliefs?
Service attendance and prayer/meditation is positively associated with New Age beliefs, especially among those who do not attend religious services.
What does the societal function of religion refer to?
The societal function of religion refers to what religion accomplishes in society, such as providing a moral foundation.
How does religion provide a moral foundation in society?
Religion provides ideas about right and wrong, such as honesty and generosity being good and deceitfulness and selfishness being bad, which seem to have religious origins.
What are the three personal functions commonly discussed in the context of religion?
The three personal functions commonly discussed are meaning, control, and sociality.
What does the personal function 'Meaning' entail in the context of religion?
The personal function 'Meaning' refers to the desire to know the purpose or meaning of life, which religion answers.
What does the personal function 'Control' refer to?
The personal function 'Control' refers to the desire people have to control events around them; religion helps with the belief to leave matters in God's hands when control is not possible.
What is suggested about those with a strong belief in God mediated control?
Research suggests that people with a strong belief in God mediated control, believing that God works with them to influence events, are more optimistic.
Define the personal function 'Sociality' in the context of religion.
The personal function 'Sociality' refers to people's need for affiliation, the desire to be with other people, where social networks within religious communities are associated with greater life satisfaction.
What is the relationship between religiosity and antisocial behavior?
The negative relationship between religiosity and antisocial behavior seems to be partially genetic, as does the positive relationship between religiosity and prosocial behavior.
How does heritability of religiosity change from adolescence to adulthood?
Research suggests that the heritability of religiosity increases from adolescence to adulthood.
What are the two types of unusual and powerful experiences discussed in the text?
The two types of unusual and powerful experiences are mystical experiences and numinous experiences.
What characterizes a mystical experience?
A mystical experience might involve feeling at one with the universe or an experience of nothingness, and it can also involve encountering or communing with God.
How do Hood and colleagues (2009) define a numinous experience?
A numinous experience is defined as an awareness of a holy other beyond nature with which one feels to be in communion.
What was Piaget's proposal regarding cognitive development and religious thinking?
Piaget proposed that religious thinking, like thinking in general, becomes more abstract with maturity.
What factors contribute to a good parent-child relationship in terms of religious belief?
Warmth, affection, discipline, and guidance from parents tend to create a good parent-child relationship, making the parents' faith more attractive.
What did Okagaki and Bevis (1999) find regarding mothers' religious beliefs?
Okagaki and Bevis (1999) found that undergraduate women's agreement with their mothers' religious beliefs was predicted by the warmth of their relationship.
What mechanisms might transfer faith from parent to child?
Mechanisms for transferring faith include modeling, participation in religious activities (e.g., service attendance), and having religious discussions.
How do peers influence children's adoption of their parents' faith?
Children are more likely to adopt their parents' faith when they have peers who also share the same faith.
What does the correspondence hypothesis suggest about children's relationship with God?
The correspondence hypothesis suggests that a child's perceived relationship with God will correspond to their relationship with their parents; secure attachment leads to a secure relationship with God.
According to the compensation hypothesis, how might individuals seek a relationship with God?
The compensation hypothesis suggests that individuals with an insecure relationship with their parents might seek a secure relationship with God as a way of compensating for that poor relationship.
What is health psychology?
Health psychology is psychology applied to health, encompassing the study of illness, treatments, prevention of illness, and promotion of good health.
What is positive psychology?
Positive psychology addresses topics such as happiness, gratitude, and humility, emphasizing promoting what is positive in addition to overcoming what is negative.
What are the four factors of the Health Belief Model according to Waite & Killian (2008)?
The four factors are: 1) perception of threat, 2) perceived severity of the threat, 3) perceived pros and cons of engaging in health behavior, and 4) cues to action.
What is the precontemplation stage in the Transtheoretical Model?
The precontemplation stage is when individuals are not even thinking about changing and might be disinterested in changing.
What is the contemplation stage in the Transtheoretical Model?
The contemplation stage is when individuals are thinking about changing.
Describe the action stage in the Transtheoretical Model.
The action stage is when individuals have committed to change and are making changes in their lives.
What is the maintenance stage in the Transtheoretical Model?
The maintenance stage is when individuals have changed but need to be vigilant to prevent a relapse.
According to the theory of planned behavior, what is the best predictor of behavior?
The best predictor of behavior is one's intention to perform the behavior.
What are the three factors that predict behavioral intentions in the theory of planned behavior?
The three factors are: 1) attitude toward the behavior, 2) subjective norms, 3) perceived behavioral control.
What is the self-concept?
Self-concept is our knowledge about ourselves.
What are schemas in the context of cognitive structures?
Schemas are cognitive structures that organize information.
What is the self-reference effect?
The self-reference effect is the tendency for us to have better memory for information that is related to ourselves.
Define the interpersonal self.
The interpersonal self refers to the aspects of ourselves that we present to others or that emerge as a result of interpersonal interaction.
What is the executive self?
The executive self is our consciousness or will, the part of ourselves that makes decisions and regulates our behavior.
What is the looking glass self concept?
The looking glass self suggests that our self-concept develops when we imagine how others see us.
What does social comparison theory suggest?
Social comparison theory suggests that people seek to evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to others.
What does self-perception theory suggest?
Self-perception theory suggests that we learn about ourselves by observing our own behavior.
Describe individualist cultures.
Individualist cultures are those that emphasize the individual.
Describe collectivist cultures.
Collectivist cultures are those that emphasize the group.
What is the Twenty Statements Test (TST)?
The Twenty Statements Test is a self-concept measure that asks people to complete the statement 'I am' 20 times.
What are positive illusions?
Positive illusions are unrealistically positive self-views and biases that seem to promote such views.
What is the better than average effect?
The better than average effect, or Lake Wobegon effect, is the tendency to think that one is better than average.
What is the worse than average effect?
The worse than average effect is the tendency to think that one is worse than average.
What is the illusion of control?
The illusion of control is the tendency to think that we have more control than we actually do.
Define self-esteem.
Self-esteem is the value one places on oneself.
What does the self-evaluation maintenance model suggest?
The self-evaluation maintenance model suggests that we desire to maintain or enhance our self-esteem through the comparison process or reflection process.
Describe the comparison process in self-evaluation maintenance.
The comparison process involves boosting or maintaining our self-esteem by comparing ourselves to others, which takes precedence when self-relevance is high.
What is upward social comparison?
Upward social comparison is comparing ourselves to others who are more capable.
What is downward social comparison?
Downward social comparison is comparing ourselves to others who are less capable.
Describe the reflection process in self-evaluation maintenance.
The reflection process involves boosting or maintaining our self-esteem by emphasizing our close relationship with a good other or our distant relationship with a bad other.
What is self-relevance?
Self-relevance is the degree to which a skill is important to oneself.
What is narcissism?
Narcissism is a trait characterized by extremely high self-esteem and the view that one is deserving of admiration and preferential treatment.
What is self-regulation?
Self-regulation is the use of self-control or willpower.
What is ego depletion?
Ego depletion is a state of reduced self-control that occurs after one has recently used self-control.
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