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What is the process of creating new strands of DNA with base sequences identical to existing strands called?
DNA replication
Radioactive Sulfur 35S
Viruses were labeled with radioactive sulfur, and newly produced viral proteins incorporated the radioactive sulfur.
How many possibilities are there for a sequence of three DNA bases?
4^3 (64) possibilities.
Describe the directionality of nucleotide addition in DNA replication.
In DNA replication, nucleotides are always added to the 3' end of the growing polymer of nucleotides. This occurs as the 5' phosphate of the free nucleotide is linked to the deoxyribose sugar at the 3' end of the growing polymer, resulting in a 5' to 3' direction of DNA synthesis.
How many strands does RNA have?
One strand
Semi-conservative replication
A type of DNA replication where each original DNA molecule is changed into two identical DNA molecules, each with one strand from the original molecule and one new strand.
What creates a strong sugar phosphate backbone in DNA and RNA molecules?
A series of alternating sugar and phosphate groups with a chain of carbon, oxygen, and phosphorus atoms covalently bonded together.
What are the bases in DNA and RNA?
DNA: Thymine, RNA: Uracil
Explain the difference between DNA and RNA in terms of their sugar component.
The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while the sugar in RNA is ribose. Ribose has an oxygen and a hydrogen at position two, whereas deoxyribose has only a hydrogen at position two.
Codons
Groups of three bases in DNA or RNA that have meanings in the genetic code, of which there are 64 different codons.
What forms the basis of a code in each nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)?
Bases
DNA replication
The process where the two strands of the double helix separate and each serves as a template for the creation of a new strand. This process involves complementary base pairing to ensure the exact same base sequence is preserved.
How many different bases do DNA and RNA have?
Both DNA and RNA have four different bases.
Pentose sugar ribose
Distinguishable by the oxygen attached to 2 carbon.
How are nucleotides linked together into a chain or polymer?
Covalent bonds are formed between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the pentose sugar of the next nucleotide.
Genetic information
Consists of sections of DNA called genes. Each gene contains information needed for a particular purpose. When the information in a gene has an effect on the cell, it is called gene expression.
What is the relationship between RNA molecules and the amino acid sequence of a protein?
The sequence of RNA molecules is translated into the amino acid sequence of a protein.
Conservation of the genetic code
The genetic code is conserved across all life forms, providing evidence of universal common ancestry.
Where is the base linked in the pentose sugar?
C1
Explain the directionality of the assembly of an RNA strand during transcription.
During transcription, only one of the two strands of DNA is used as a template for making an RNA transcript. The assembly of the RNA strand occurs in the same direction as the overall process of transcription.
How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?
DNA structure is dependent on complementary base pairings (A-T, C-G), and this complementary pairing guides accurate replication because the bases always pair up with each other in a consistent way.
How is genetic information stored in DNA?
In the base sequence of one of the two strands of a DNA molecule.
Role of complementary base pairing
In DNA, certain bases can only pair with each other: Guanine with Cytosine and Adenine with Thymine. This allows exact replication of genetic information.
Radioactive Phosphorus 32P
Viruses were labeled with radioactive phosphorus, and newly synthesized viral DNA incorporated the radioactive phosphorus.
What role does DNA play in protein synthesis?
DNA contains the genetic information needed to produce proteins, and it is used as a template to transcribe RNA, which then serves as a template for protein synthesis.
What are the five carbon atoms in the pentose sugar numbered with?
What is genetic material, and why is DNA considered as the genetic material of all living organisms?
Genetic material is a store of information that is inherited and passed from cell to cell and parent to offspring. All living organisms use DNA to store hereditary information.
Centrifugation
Infected bacterial cells were subjected to centrifugation to separate viral protein coats from the bacterial cells and their contents.
What is the role of complementary base pairings in DNA structure?
Complementary base pairing guides accurate replication because it allows the bases to always pair up with each other in a consistent way, ensuring accurate replication.
Why do DNA strands run in opposite directions and are said to be antiparallel?
To allow the bases to form hydrogen bonds with each other
Explain the function of ribozymes in the context of replication, transcription, and translation.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules with catalytic activity that can facilitate the cleavage and ligation of RNA. They aid in the processes of replication, transcription, and translation by catalyzing the formation of phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acid synthesis and the peptide bond formation in protein synthesis.
Where is the phosphate linked in the pentose sugar?
C5
Why is genetic material referred to as hereditary information?
Genetic material is hereditary information because it is inherited and can be passed from cell to cell and parent to offspring, storing information for the next generation.
Structure of a nucleosome
Under a microscope, the DNA of eukaryotes looks like a string of beads, with each bead being a nucleosome. A nucleosome consists of eight histone proteins at its core, and an additional histone protein molecule called H1 reinforces the binding of the DNA to the nucleosome core. There is a short section of linker DNA between adjacent nucleosomes.
Replication
The process in which DNA polymerases and other enzymes make copies of DNA, always happening in the 5' to 3' direction due to the directionality of DNA strands.
Transcription
The process of making an RNA copy of the base sequence following the rules of complementary base pairing, where adenine on the DNA template strand pairs with uracil on the RNA strand.
Why do some viruses not falsify the claim that all living organisms use DNA as their genetic material?
Some viruses, like HIV and Coronavirus, use RNA as their genetic material. However, viruses cannot reproduce themselves and rely on a host cell for reproduction, leading them to not be considered true living organisms.
How many possibilities are there for a sequence of two DNA bases?
4^2 (16) possibilities.
Why are the bases referred to as nitrogenous bases?
Because all bases contain nitrogen.
RNA
Produced by transcription, it may have a regulatory or structural role in the cell or may be used in protein synthesis. The base sequence of RNA molecules is translated into the amino acid sequence of a protein.
What is the structure of DNA called due to its two strands?
Double helix
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
Nucleotides consist of a sugar (pentose sugar - deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a base (nitrogenous base - purines or pyrimidine). These components link together to form a nucleotide.
What is the diameter of a DNA molecule?
2 nanometers.
Transcription
The process in which RNA polymerase makes an RNA copy of a DNA base sequence, following the 3' to 5' direction of the DNA template strand.
What is the difference in bases between DNA and RNA?
DNA: Adenine-Thymine, Guanine-Cytosine RNA: Adenine-Uracil, Guanine-Cytosine
Purine to pyrimidine bonding as a component of DNA helix stability
The nitrogenous bases in DNA are in two chemical groups: Purines (Adenine and Guanine) and Pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine). Each pair in DNA has one purine and one pyrimidine base, and they are of equal width in the double helix.
What is the significance of the pentose sugar in a nucleotide?
The pentose sugar in a nucleotide forms the backbone of the nucleic acid polymer and provides a platform for the attachment of the base and the phosphate group.
Explain the bonding in a nucleotide and how the components link together.
The base and the phosphate are both linked by covalent bonds to the pentose sugar, forming the nucleotide. The phosphate group is negatively charged and acidic.
DNA Replication
The process of creating new strands of DNA with base sequences identical to existing strands.
Directionality of RNA and DNA
DNA and RNA strands have directionality, with the 3' and 5' ends being distinguishable, affecting processes like replication, transcription, and translation.
Evidence from the Hershey Chase experiment for DNA as the genetic material
The Hershey Chase experiment confirmed that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material. In the experiment, viruses containing DNA with radioactive phosphorus and viruses containing proteins with radioactive sulfur were used to determine which component of the bacteriophage entered bacterial cells and played a role in viral replication. The results supported the hypothesis that DNA is the genetic material.
How many strands does DNA have?
Two strands
How many types of nucleotides are there in both DNA and RNA?
Four types of nucleotides in both DNA and RNA.
Why are bases in nucleic acids referred to as nitrogenous bases?
Bases in nucleic acids are referred to as nitrogenous bases because they contain nitrogen.
What is the term used to describe the parallel orientation of nucleotides in DNA?
Antiparallel
Nucleotide linkage in DNA or RNA
Nucleotides within a strand of DNA or RNA are linked in the same way, with the phosphate group of one nucleotide linked to the pentose sugar of the next nucleotide.
What makes DNA's structure suited to being replicated repeatedly?
The double-stranded nature of DNA, with complementary base pairing, allows for accurate replication.
What are the two types of nucleic acids, and where were nucleic acids first discovered?
The two types of nucleic acids are DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids were first discovered in the cell nucleus.
Amino acid specificity
Most codons specify one particular amino acid, with one codon signaling the start of protein synthesis and three codons signaling the end of protein synthesis.
Explain the structure of nucleic acids and how they are formed.
Nucleic acids are very large molecules made from subunits called nucleotides, which link to form a polymer. This polymer structure forms the backbone of DNA and RNA.
What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA?
The four nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA).
Explain the directionality of translation and the movement of the ribosome.
Translation occurs in a 5' to 3' direction as the ribosome moves along the RNA molecule towards the 3' end, carrying out the process of linking amino acids together to form a polypeptide.
What is the direction of translation along the RNA molecule?
5' to 3' direction
Pentose sugar deoxyribose
Distinguishable by its lack of oxygen attached to 2 carbon.
How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?
The structure of DNA facilitates accurate replication through complementary base pairings (A-T, C-G) which guide accurate replication as bases always pair up with each other in a consistent way.
Structural differences between Guanine and Adenine
- Guanine forms three hydrogen bonds with cytosine while adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine - Guanine has an amine or ketone group attached to C 2 or C 6 positions, while adenine has only an amine group attached to C 6 position - Adenine has an additional point of unsaturation between C 6 and N 1 in its six-membered ring
What are the types of nucleic acids?
The two types of nucleic acids are DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid). DNA and RNA are very large molecules made from subunits called nucleotides, which link to form a polymer.
Role in viral replication process
DNA is the genetic material that directs the synthesis of new viral particles in bacterial cells.
Describe the directionality of nucleotide addition in transcription.
In transcription, RNA nucleotides are always added to the 3' end of the growing polymer of nucleotides. The 5' phosphate of the free nucleotide is linked to the ribose sugar at the 3' end of the growing polymer, resulting in a 5' to 3' direction of RNA synthesis.
What is DNA's function as the genetic material of all living organisms?
DNA serves as the store of hereditary information, which is inherited and passed from cell to cell and parent to offspring. All living organisms use DNA to store hereditary information.
How is information stored in DNA and RNA?
The sequence of bases.
Sequence of bases in DNA or RNA
The sequence of bases contains information in a coded form, which is decoded during protein synthesis.
What is the role of pentose sugar in DNA and RNA?
Pentose sugar forms the backbone of DNA and RNA, linking nucleotides together through covalent bonds.
What is the universal genetic code shared by all organisms?
The universal genetic code is the sequence of bases in DNA and RNA, which stores genetic information in a coded form.
How are nucleotides linked together in DNA and RNA?
Nucleotides in DNA and RNA are linked through the formation of covalent bonds between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the pentose sugar of the next nucleotide.
Explain the differences in DNA replication between the leading and lagging strands.
The leading strand synthesizes continuously in the 5' to 3' direction, aligned with the overall direction of replication. However, the lagging strand synthesizes discontinuously in short fragments called Okazaki fragments, in the opposite direction to the overall direction of replication. Primase synthesizes RNA primers at intervals, and DNA polymerase extends each primer into a short fragment on the lagging strand.
Chargaff's Data
Chargaff's data on the relative amounts of pyrimidine and purine bases across diverse life forms.
How many possibilities are there for a sequence of n DNA bases?
4^n possibilities.
During the production of nucleic acids, how are the nucleotides added to the growing polypeptide?
The phosphate of the nucleotide being added is linked by a covalent bond to the pentose sugar of the previous nucleotide.
What is the universal genetic code shared by all organisms?
The sequence of bases in DNA and RNA, which stores information in a coded form.
What are the four DNA bases?
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C).
Diversity of possible DNA base sequences
Genetic information is stored in the base sequence of one of the two strands of a DNA molecule, providing limitless capacity for storing information.
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
Nucleotides consist of a sugar (pentose sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (which can be a purine or a pyrimidine).
Universal genetic code
All living organisms follow the same genetic code, with few exceptions where stop codons have changed to code for specific amino acids instead.
Tetranucleotide Hypothesis
The hypothesis that DNA contains a repeating sequence of the four bases, which would mean the four nucleotides occur in equal numbers.
Explain the sugar-phosphate bonding and the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA.
To link nucleotides together into a chain or polymer, covalent bonds form between the sugar and phosphate groups, creating the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA.
Translation
The process at a ribosome in which an RNA base sequence determines the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide, following the 5' to 3' direction of the mRNA.
Scholarly Assistant's Insights
A review of biology topics including DNA replication and nucleotide addition directionality. Flashcard deck included.
Biology
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Molecular Biology
Dna Replication
Rna Transcription
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