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Nuclear Chemistry Definition
A branch of Chemistry dealing with the reactions involving the change in the nucleus of an atom.
Bohr's model of an atom
A model of atomic structure in which the positively charged nucleus is surrounded by electrons in specific orbits or shells.
Nuclear Reaction Definition
A process in which two nuclei or a nucleus and an external subatomic particle collide to produce one or more new nuclides.
Nuclide
An atom with a distinct number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Nuclides may be stable or unstable.
Chemical Reaction vs Nuclear Reaction
Chemical reaction: New substances are formed, bonds break and molecules rearrange. Mass is conserved from reactant side to product side. Nuclear reaction: Total mass of the product is slightly less than the mass of the total mass of the reactant. When matter disappears, an equivalent amount of energy appears. Not affected by temperature, pressure, or catalyst.
4 Basic Types of Chemical Reaction
1. Combustion 2. Synthesis 3. Decomposition 4. Single Replacement
Types of Nuclear Reactions
1. Fission: Heavy unstable nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei with energy release. 2. Fusion: Two light nuclei combine together, releasing a vast amount of energy. 3. Decay: Unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation, also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration.
Nuclear Fission
Balanced nuclear reaction, chain reaction, critical mass, the minimum amount of fissionable material needed to maintain a nuclear chain reaction depends upon the material's nuclear properties, density, shape, purity, enrichment, temperature, and surroundings. For example, U-235's critical mass is about 15 kg. If brought together in one place with a source of neutrons, fission would occur spontaneously and continue as long as the critical mass persists.
Production of Energy by Nuclear Fission
Energy given off during fission, coal equivalence, nuclear power plant, worldwide nuclear disasters, Fukushima Daiichi.
What is the approximate chemical formula of coal?
C135H96O9NS (a complex mixture of substances, not a single compound)
What are the elements that make up coal?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, silicon, sodium, calcium, aluminium, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, lead, and mercury
What are the types of coal and their energy content?
Bituminous (307 kJ/g), Anthracite (305 kJ/g), Subbituminous (240 kJ/g), Lignite (162 kJ/g), Peat (130 kJ/g), Wood (104-141 kJ/g)
What is the major component of petroleum?
Gasoline, which is a mixture of thousands of different compounds, with hydrocarbons being the majority
What is the process of distillation in petroleum refining?
Distillation is a separation process in which a solution is heated to its boiling point and vapors are condensed and collected
What is thermal cracking in petroleum refining?
Thermal cracking involves heating the starting materials to a high temperature, promoting molecular breakdown at lower temperatures
What is the drawback to petroleum that must be addressed before use?
It must be refined before use
What are oxygenated gasolines and their advantages?
Oxygenated gasolines are blends of petroleum derivative hydrocarbons with added oxygen-containing MTBE, ethanol, or methanol. They burn more cleanly by producing less carbon monoxide
What is RFG in petroleum refining?
Reformulated Gasolines (RFG) are oxygenated gasoline that also contain a lower percentage of certain more volatile hydrocarbons such as benzene found in non-oxygenated gasoline
What is the gasoline additive MTBE used for?
MTBE (Methyl tert-butyl ether) is a gasoline additive used as an oxygenate to reduce carbon monoxide and soot, and to raise the octane number
What are biofuels and their advantages?
Biofuels are fuels that have been extracted from plants and crops. Their advantages include lesser CO2 emissions and economic benefits
The need to understand engineering materials
Engineers create technical design. They need to select appropriate materials.
Civil engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Electronics engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Mechanical engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Computer engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Electrical engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Industrial engineers
Understand the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Materials Engineering
Understanding the properties physical and chemical of materials. Designing engineering the structure of a material for a particular application or use.
Structure
Atomic structure arrangement of atoms throughout the material.
Property
Chemical properties (e.g., resistance to corrosion), Physical properties (e.g., strength flexibility), Electrical and magnetic properties (e.g., conductivity)
Components of ME
Structure, Property, Processing, Manufacturing history, Performance
Processing
Manufacturing history
Performance
Engineering materials
Metal
Engineering materials
Ceramics
Engineering materials
Polymers
Engineering materials
Composites
Engineering materials
Refractories
Ceramics that are designed to withstand very high temperature.
Alloys
Mixture of metals.
Composites
Materials that are composed of two or more materials which combine to give a material superior than those of the individual component.
Solids
- Have definite volume - Have definite shape - Molecules are held in specific locations by electrical forces - Vibrate about equilibrium positions - Can be modeled as springs connecting molecules
Types of Solids According to Arrangement of Molecules
1. Crystalline: Regular repeating geometric arrangement 2. Amorphous: Random arrangements - A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid - Unit Cell lattice point
Differences between Crystalline and Amorphous - Melting point
Crystalline solids: Sharp melting point, change into liquids at definite temperature Amorphous solids: Soften and start flowing in a semi-solid forms on heating, do not turn abruptly into liquids
Differences between Crystalline and Amorphous - Cooling Characteristics
Crystalline solids: Slow cooled Amorphous solids: Fast cooled
Examples of Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
Crystalline: Diamond, Sodium chloride Amorphous: Glass
Types of Crystals - Ionic Crystals
Lattice points occupied by cations and anions Held together by electrostatic attraction Hard, brittle, high melting point Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Types of Crystals - Covalent Crystals
Lattice points occupied by atoms Held together by covalent bonds Hard, high melting point Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Types of Crystals - Molecular Crystals
Lattice points occupied by molecules Held together by intermolecular forces Soft, low melting point Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Types of Crystals - Metallic Crystals
Lattice points occupied by metal atoms Held together by metallic bonds Soft to hard, low to high melting point Good conductors of heat and electricity
Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
- Nucleus - Inner shell e - Mobile sea of e - Tensile strength, elasticity, ductility, malleability, brittleness
Physical Properties of Materials
- Density - Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - Specific heat/latent heat - Thermal/electrical conductivity - Hardness - Magnetic Susceptibility
Chemical Properties of Materials
- Chemical composition - Corrosion resistance - Acidity or alkalinity - Molecular/crystal structure
Nanotechnology Definition
Nanotechnology is the study of matter at an incredibly small scale, generally between 1 and 100 nanometers.
Scale of Things
A piece of paper is about 100,000 nm thick. 1 nm is 10^-9 of a meter.
Applications of Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology encompasses a broad range of materials, manufacturing processes, and technologies that are used to create and enhance many products that people use daily.
Nanomaterials
Materials having at least 1 dimension 100 nm or less. They can exist in single, fused, or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes.
Fullerene Nanomaterials
Class of allotrope of carbon which conceptually are graphene sheets rolled into tubes or spheres. They include carbon nanotubes or silicon nanotubes which possess mechanical strength and electrical conductivity.
Carbon Nanotubes
Allotropes of carbon with cylindrical nanostructure. They are exceptionally strong and stiff with extraordinary thermal conductivity, mechanical, and electrical properties.
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication of nanomaterials includes nanostructure surfaces, nanoparticles, and nanoporous materials. Critical parameters include particle size, chemical composition, desired features of the nanomaterial, and crystallinity. Factors that affect production of nanomaterials include temperature, pH, concentration, chemical composition, and process control.
Top down Milling Process
A mechanical production approach to crush microparticles. Applied in producing metallic and ceramic nanomaterials. Involves thermal stress and is energy intensive. Longer process might contaminate the particles. A chemical or chemo physical reaction accompanies the milling process.
Bottom up chemo physical production process
In this method, nanomaterials are obtained starting from the atomic or molecular precursors and gradually assembling it until the desired structure is formed. Structures are built up by chemical process based on physicochemical principles of molecular or atomic self-organization.
Gas Phase Processes
Includes aerosol processes, precipitation reactions, and sol-gel processes. Aerosol processes are the most common industrial-scale technologies for producing nanomaterials in powder or film form. Production of initial nanomaterials (liquid or solid) takes place via homogeneous nucleation. Depending on the process, further particle growth.
Terms: Supramolecular structures
Large molecules formed by grouping or bonding smaller molecules together.
Terms: Milling
Breaking solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting in a mill. A process of using rotary cutters.
Terms: Nucleation
Initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from solution, a liquid, or a vapor in which a smaller number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as crystals grow.
POLYMER DEFINITION
Large molecules consisting of long chains of atoms covalently bonded. Polymers are referred to as macromolecules, molecules of high molecular mass. Made up of monomers, small molecules used to synthesize the large polymeric chain.
Addition Polymerization
Monomers add to the growing polymer chain in such a way that the product contains all the atoms of the starting material. No other product is formed. Polymerization Reaction: ethylene o polyethylene.
Common Types of Polymers
The Big Six: LDPE (low density polyethylene), HDPE (high density polyethylene), PVC or V (polyvinyl chloride), PS (polystyrene), PP (polypropylene), PET or PETE (polyethylene terephthalate).
POLYMER MONOMER USES
ETHYLENE: Bags, films, sheets, bubble wrap, toys, wire insulation. VINYL CHLORIDE: Rigid plumbing pipe, house sidings. POLYMER MONOMER USES (STYRENE): Crystal form food wrap, CD cases, transparent cups. Expandable form foam cups, insulated containers, food packaging trays. PROPYLENE: Bottle caps, yogurt containers, margarine containers, casual furniture, luggage. ETHYLENE GLYCOL TEREPHTHALIC ACID: Soft drink bottles, clear food containers, beverage glasses, fleece fabrics, carpet yarns, fiber fill insulation.
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS
LDPE: Translucent if not pigmented, soft and flexible, unreactive to acids and bases, strong and tough. HDPE: Similar to LDPE, more rigid, tougher, slightly dense. PVC or V: Variable, rigid if not softened with a plasticizer, clear and shiny but often pigmented, resistant to oils, acids, bases, and most chemicals.
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS
PS: Variable, crystal form transparent sparkling somewhat brittle. Expandable form lightweight foam, both forms rigid and dissolve in many organic solvents. PP: Opaque, very tough, good weatherability, high melting point, resistant to oils. PET or PETE: Transparent, strong, shatter-resistant, impervious to acids and atmospheric gases, most costly among the above-mentioned polymers.
Type of Polymers According to Their Crystals Structure
Some acronyms: ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), PPO (polyphenylene oxide), SAN (styrene acrylonitrile), PBT (polybutylene terephthalate), PEEK (polyether ether ketone), PPS (polyphenylene sulfide), PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), LCP (liquid crystal polymer).
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An extensive flashcard deck covering a wide range of topics including chemistry, nuclear reactions, engineering materials, and nanotechnology.
Nuclear Chemistry
Chemical Reactions
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