Duplicate
Export
Register
NCM111 LEC
1 Flashcard Deck
Send to Chat
AI Edit
Heading 3
Highlight
Here's your flashcard deck!
Send to Chat
AI Edit
Normal Text
Highlight
You can edit it by clicking the 'edit'! Once you have a few cards, you can begin to study it in full screen or use our AI study mode!
Flashcard Deck
Study
What are hypotheses, and how are they related to theories and reality testing?
Hypotheses are tentative statements that propose a possible explanation for a phenomenon or event. They are based on theories and are tested with reality.
What types of studies typically require hypotheses, and how do they differ from qualitative studies?
Quantitative studies, experimental studies, and some descriptive studies require hypotheses to explain the value and meaning of a phenomenon. In contrast, qualitative studies are guided by research questions instead of hypotheses.
What should researchers consider before formulating a hypothesis, and how does it differ from a research problem?
Researchers should conduct a review of the literature and establish a theoretical framework before formulating a hypothesis. The hypothesis is not the research problem but is subjected to empirical testing through data collection and analysis.
What types of research problems necessitate hypotheses for in-depth solutions?
Research problems that are experimental, causal, comparative, correlational, or normative in nature require hypotheses for their in-depth solutions.
What are the key characteristics of a well-formulated hypothesis?
A well-formulated hypothesis should possess the following characteristics: 1. Testability - it should be observable, quantifiable, and capable of analysis. 2. Clarity - it should be clear and concise. 3. Verifiability - it should state an anticipated relationship. 4. Set the limits of the study. 5. Can be accepted or rejected. 6. Formulated in simple and understandable terms. 7. Corresponds to existing knowledge. 8. Logical and justifiable, consistent with a body of knowledge. 9. Based on the research problem.
In what tense and with what elements should a hypothesis be stated?
A hypothesis should be stated in the declarative form and in the present tense. It should indicate the population, the independent variable, dependent variable, and the anticipated relationship between them.
When is a hypothesis not testable, and what are the reasons for its non-testability?
A hypothesis is not testable when: - Variables are not observable and quantifiable. - Variables cannot be subjected to factual testing and analysis. - Variables do not state any predicted relationship. - It lacks phrases such as "more than," "less than," "greater than," "different from," "related to," or something similar, making it non-testable.
What are the two main categories of hypotheses, and how do they differ?
The two main categories of hypotheses are simple and complex. Simple hypotheses involve one independent and one dependent variable, while complex hypotheses can have two independent variables and one dependent variable or one independent variable and two dependent variables.
What is the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses?
Directional hypotheses specify clear characteristics of the variables and predict the direction of the relationship between them. Non-directional hypotheses do not specify the direction of the relationship and leave it open-ended.
What are the two types of hypotheses based on their nature?
The two types of hypotheses based on their nature are research or alternative hypotheses and statistical or null hypotheses.
How can you distinguish between a research (alternative) hypothesis and a statistical (null) hypothesis?
A research (alternative) hypothesis suggests that there is a significant relationship between variables, while a statistical (null) hypothesis suggests that there is no significant relationship between variables.
What are the advantages of using a null hypothesis in scientific studies?
The advantages of using a null hypothesis in scientific studies include that it is scientific, reflects the impartiality of the researcher, and minimizes research bias.
What role does testing the hypothesis play in empirical investigation?
Testing the hypothesis is the heart of the empirical investigation, as it determines the solution to the research problem.
What are assumptions in the context of research, and how are they classified?
Assumptions in research are statements considered true, even if not scientifically proven. They are classified into three types: universal assumptions (beliefs taken as true by most people), study assumptions (starting points for the study), and theory or research-based assumptions (derived from previous research in a field of study).
What is the research framework, and how does it support the development of a research question?
The research framework is the structure of an idea or concept and how it is put together, forming an argument that supports the rationale for developing the research question. It helps provide a structure for the research study and guides the development of hypotheses and research questions.
What is the rationale for developing a conceptual or theoretical framework in research?
The rationale for developing a conceptual or theoretical framework in research is to justify the investigation, provide reasons for searching for new data, and establish the relationship among variables by citing the theories on which the study is based.
What is a conceptual framework, and what does it consist of?
A conceptual framework is a structure of concepts grouped together to form a map for the study. It explains the relationship of variables based on literature and research. It consists of concepts that help clarify the overall relationship of the research variables by defining how the concepts are related.
How is a conceptual framework different from a theoretical framework?
A conceptual framework is a representation of the expected relationship between variables based on literature and research, while a theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts existing in the literature, serving as a ready-made map for the study. Theoretical frameworks guide the selection of variables to measure and the conclusions to be drawn.
What is the nature of theory, and how does it relate to research?
Theories are always speculative and are never proven. They provide descriptions and explanations of phenomena and can be further developed, revised, or discarded if not supported by empirical findings. Theories are general principles that systematically explain the relationship among given phenomena for the purpose of explaining, predicting, and controlling those phenomena.
What components make up a theory, and how do they guide research?
A theory consists of concepts and propositions, which are ideas and relationships between concepts. It also includes a conceptual paradigm. These interrelated concepts form a framework that guides and directs researchers in their investigations.
What is the reinforcement theory of motivation, and who proposed it?
The reinforcement theory of motivation, proposed by BF Skinner, states that an individual's behavior is a function of its consequences.
What are the key assumptions of the reinforcement theory of motivation?
The assumptions of the reinforcement theory of motivation include: - Behavior is based on the 'law of effect.' - Behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated. - Behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
What are Thorndike's laws of exercise, and what are their assumptions?
Thorndike's laws of exercise include: - Law of use: The more often an association is used, the stronger it becomes. - Law of disuse: The longer an association is unused, the weaker it becomes.
What is a paradigm, and how does it relate to one's belief system and view of reality?
A paradigm is an overall belief system that makes sense of reality and forms the basis of knowledge. It influences how an individual views reality and interprets the world.
What is a conceptual paradigm, and how does it relate to research?
A conceptual paradigm is a visual diagram that presents and interprets the underlying theory, principles, and concepts of research. It represents the structure and parts of a theory and helps researchers understand the relationships between variables before empirical investigation.
How do research designs influence the quality of a study, and which methodological decision has the most impact on the study's quality?
Research designs strongly influence the quality of evidence a study yields. The choice of research design has more impact on the quality of the study than any other methodological decision.
What is mixed methods research, and what are some common uses of mixed methods?
Mixed methods research combines qualitative and quantitative research approaches to explore a research problem. It can be used to explain and interpret phenomena, develop and test new instruments, complement a theoretical perspective, address questions at different levels, and overcome the weaknesses of a single design.
What are some strengths and weaknesses of mixed methods research?
Some strengths of mixed methods research include its ability to describe and report findings, handle unexpected results, generalize qualitative data to some extent, design and validate instruments, and position research in a transformative framework. Some weaknesses include the time required, discrepancies between different types of data, unequal evidence generation, difficulty in deciding when to proceed in sequential designs, and limited guidance on transformative methods.
What are the four key decisions for mixed method designs, as outlined by Creswell?
1. What is the implementation sequence of data collection? 2. What method takes priority during data collection and analysis? 3. What does the integration stage of finding involve? 4. Will a theoretical perspective be used?
What are the six mixed methods design strategies, according to Creswell, and what are their purposes?
1. Sequential Explanatory: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study. 2. Sequential Exploratory: To explore a phenomenon or develop and test a new instrument. 3. Sequential Transformative: To employ methods that best serve a theoretical perspective. 4. Concurrent Triangulation: To confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study using two or more methods. 5. Concurrent Nested: To address different questions or seek information from different levels. 6. Concurrent Transformative: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.
What are non-experimental research designs, and when are they typically used?
Non-experimental research designs are used when researchers do not intervene by manipulating independent variables. They are typically used when manipulation of variables is impractical or impossible due to insufficient time, inconvenience, administrative barriers, or prior manifestation of the variable of interest.
What is a correlational research design, and what are its advantages and limitations?
Correlational research design examines phenomena as they naturally occur without the researcher's intervention. It explores relationships between variables. The advantages include its realism and appropriateness when manipulating variables is impractical. The limitation is the lack of direct control over the independent variable and randomization.
What are retrospective designs or case-control studies, and how are they used in research?
Retrospective designs or case-control studies link an existing phenomenon to a situation that occurred in the past before the study was initiated. Researchers use this design to identify risk factors for different problems or conditions.
What is a prospective study, and how does it differ from retrospective studies?
A prospective study, also known as a cohort study, starts with a presumed cause and goes forward to observe a presumed effect. It differs from retrospective studies in that it requires substantial follow-up for dependent variables to manifest, making it more costly. It may also require large samples if dependent variables are rare. However, it is considered stronger than retrospective studies, as it allows for more control and representative samples.
What is a natural experiment, and how is it used in research?
A natural experiment compares a group exposed to a natural phenomenon with important health consequences to a non-exposed group. Researchers use this design to assess the impact of naturally occurring events on specific outcomes.
What are path analytic studies, and what is their purpose in research?
Path analytic studies test theories of causation based on non-experimental data. Researchers assess whether non-experimental data conform sufficiently to the underlying model to justify making causal inferences.
What is descriptive research, and how is it typically used in research?
Descriptive research is used to observe, describe, and document aspects of a situation as they naturally occur. It can serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.
What are the types of descriptive research, and how do they differ?
Types of descriptive research include: 1. Descriptive correlational study: To describe relationships among variables rather than infer cause and effect relationships. 2. Univariate descriptive studies, including prevalence studies and incidence studies, which measure the frequency of developing new cases.
What are the limitations of descriptive research, and what are its strengths?
Limitations of descriptive research include its weak ability to establish causal relationships, susceptibility to faulty interpretation due to a lack of randomization, and the inability to assure that compared groups are similar before the occurrence of the dependent variable. Strengths of descriptive studies include their efficiency in collecting a large amount of data, realism, and strong intrinsic appeal for solving practical problems. They are also efficient for listing causal hypotheses based on established theories and for collecting a large amount of data about a problem.
Non-traditional/nonexperimental research designs
1. Survey 2. Evaluation research 3. Needs Assessment 4. Secondary analysis 5. Meta-analysis 6. Delphi survey 7. Time dimension designs 8. Longitudinal design 9. Cross-sectional design 10. Trend design
How non-traditional/nonexperimental research designs are used in research
1. Survey: Gathers relatively superficial information. 2. Evaluation research: A cornerstone of policy research that contributes to policy formulation. 3. Needs Assessment: Similar to evaluation research and helps identify needs. 4. Secondary analysis: Involves examining existing documents, potentially facing data deficiencies. 5. Meta-analysis: Gathers data from previous research to integrate findings and observe patterns. 6. Delphi survey: Involves experts to obtain information for planning and prediction. 7. Time dimension designs: Aims to determine causality (inferred causality). 8. Longitudinal design: Examines changes in the same subjects over an extended period. 9. Cross-sectional design: Examines various groups of individuals at various development stages simultaneously. 10. Trend design: Examines changes in the general population in relation to a particular phenomenon.
Principle of causality
Research questions about cause and effect.
Criteria for causality in quantitative studies
1. Temporal precedence (cause precedes effect). 2. Empirical relationship between cause and effect. 3. Absence of other variables causing the relationship.
Bradford-Hill criteria for causality
1. Coherence: Similar evidence from other sources. 2. Biologic plausibility: Credible evidence from the laboratory.
Counterfactual model
Determines what would happen if subjects were not exposed to causal factors. Used to establish a control group for comparison.
Characteristics of true experiments
1. Manipulation or intervention. 2. Control group or counterfactual group. 3. Randomization in assigning subjects to groups. 4. Validity, ensuring unbiased and cogent evidence.
Why true experiments are considered the gold standard for establishing causality
They meet the criteria of manipulation, control, randomization, and validity.
What is manipulation or intervention in experimental research, and why is it important?
Manipulation or intervention in experimental research refers to deliberately changing or introducing a variable to study its effects. It is important because it allows researchers to examine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables while controlling for other factors.
What is the purpose of a control group in experimental research, and what are the two types of control groups?
The control group serves to show that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables cannot be explained by something else. There are two types of control groups: 1. Positive Control Group: Expected to have a positive result and demonstrates that the setup can produce results. 2. Negative Control Group: Expected to have a negative result and ensures that no confounding variables have affected the result.
What is randomization in experimental research, and why is it considered the signature of an experiment?
Randomization is the process of assigning subjects to control and experimental groups on a random basis. It is considered the signature of an experiment because it ensures that groups are equivalent, minimizes bias, and provides a trustworthy and acceptable method for equalizing groups.
What is the importance of validity in experimental research, and how should gathered evidence be?
Validity is essential in experimental research to ensure that the gathered evidence is unbiased and cogent. Valid evidence is necessary to draw meaningful conclusions about cause and effect relationships.
What are some basic experimental designs in research, and how do they differ?
1. After Only Design: Treatment is introduced after random assignment, and data on the dependent variable is collected only once. 2. Pre-test – Post-test Design: Pre-tests and post-tests are conducted before and after experimental treatment for control and experimental groups. 3. One Shot Design: One group receives treatment and is observed once, providing a quick measure of post-treatment behavior. 4. Factorial Design: Manipulates two or more variables simultaneously, allowing the evaluation of main effects and interaction effects. It permits subjects to be assigned to specific combinations of conditions and is useful for studying the effects of multiple factors.
What is a randomized block design in experimental research?
A randomized block design resembles a factorial structure but includes one independent variable as a stratifying variable that is not experimentally manipulated.
How does a randomized block design differ from a factorial design?
A randomized block design includes one independent variable as a stratifying variable that is not experimentally manipulated, while a factorial design manipulates two or more variables simultaneously.
What is a cross-over design in experimental research?
A cross-over design involves exposing one subject to more than one experimental treatment.
What advantage does a cross-over design offer?
A cross-over design ensures the highest possible equivalence among subjects exposed to different conditions, as the groups being compared are equal with respect to characteristics, being the same individuals.
What is the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
The Solomon four-group design combines aspects of both pretest-posttest control design and posttest-only design.
How does the Solomon four-group design combine different designs?
The Solomon four-group design includes pretests and posttests in some groups to assess the effects of an intervention.
What are the strengths of experiments in research?
1. Yield the highest quality evidence regarding intervention effects. 2. Randomization and the use of comparison conditions are close to attaining the ideal counterfactual. 3. Increase confidence in inferring causal relationships. 4. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials is the pinnacle of evidence hierarchies for questions relating to causes.
What are the limitations of experiments in research?
1. Artificiality, as more variables are controlled. 2. Clinical studies are conducted in areas where there is little control. 3. The Hawthorne effect may influence outcomes. 4. Output or effects can result from the mere fact of being under observation.
What are quasi-experiments in research?
Quasi-experiments involve intervention but lack randomization, which is the signature of true experiments.
How do quasi-experiments differ from true experiments?
Quasi-experiments lack randomization, while true experiments involve random assignment of participants to groups.
What is the main focus of qualitative research?
Qualitative research focuses on gathering insights and understanding the individual perceptions of the phenomenon under study. It delves into hidden meanings and is concerned with the subjective meaning of experiences of an individual.
How does qualitative research differ from quantitative research?
Qualitative research is not intended to be generalized to the study population, and it does not aim to test cause-and-effect relationships. It focuses on in-depth descriptions and understanding, while quantitative research typically aims to quantify data and test hypotheses.
What is meant by "saturation" in qualitative research?
Saturation is reached in qualitative research when themes become repetitive, suggesting that no new inputs or data are needed. It indicates that the researchers have collected enough data to understand and describe the phenomenon under study.
What is the primary basis for evaluating the quality of qualitative research?
Qualitative research is based on trustworthiness rather than reliability and validity. Researchers assess the trustworthiness of their findings through various means, such as data triangulation, member checking, and peer debriefing.
What types of sampling methods are commonly used in qualitative research?
Qualitative research typically employs non-probability sampling methods, such as purposive sampling or snowball sampling, to select participants who can provide rich insights and information on the research topic.
What is the purpose of bracketing in qualitative research?
Bracketing helps limit researchers' bias by setting aside preconceived ideas and approaching the phenomenon with an open mind.
What does "immersion" refer to in the context of qualitative research?
Immersion means engaging deeply with the data over time to gain a thorough understanding of the phenomenon under study.
How is data reduction related to qualitative research?
Data reduction involves simplifying and summarizing the large amount of data obtained in qualitative research to focus on the most significant aspects and themes.
What is the purpose of analyzing in qualitative research?
Analyzing in qualitative research involves making sense of the data, identifying patterns, and drawing conclusions about the significant meanings of statements and events.
What is the role of a sampling frame in the sampling procedure?
A sampling frame is a complete list used as a reference for selecting representative samples from the population, ensuring a systematic and accurate sampling process.
In which instances is a bigger sample size needed in research?
A bigger sample size is needed in research in the following instances: 1. When there are variables that cannot be controlled. 2. When expected differences on the variable of interest exist among populations. 3. When the population is divided into subgroups. 4. When an expected dropout rate among subjects is high. 5. When statistical tests require minimum sample sizes. 6. In power sampling, there should be enough subjects to detect differences in the independent variables.
What are the steps in determining the target subjects for a research study?
The steps in determining the target subjects for a research study are as follows: 1. Identify the target population. 2. Identify the number of respondents. 3. Specify inclusion and exclusion criteria for respondent selection. 4. Specify the sampling design. 5. Recruit the subjects.
What are the two main types of sampling methods used in research?
The two main types of sampling methods used in research are non-probability sampling and probability sampling.
What is the purpose of reliability in research?
Reliability in research refers to the accuracy of the information obtained in the study. It ensures that the measurements and statistical analysis are consistent and dependable.
What is the purpose of validity in research?
Validity in research ensures the soundness of the study's evidence. It indicates that the findings are unbiased, cogent, and well-grounded. Validity is achieved by using methods and tools that measure the intended concepts accurately and by demonstrating the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
What is credibility in qualitative research?
Credibility in qualitative research refers to the confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of them.
How can credibility in qualitative research be enhanced and evaluated?
To enhance and evaluate credibility, researchers can use methods such as prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation (data, investigator, theory, method), peer debriefing, member checking, and establishing researcher credibility.
What is transferability in qualitative research?
Transferability in qualitative research refers to the extent to which the findings can be applied to other situations that are similar to the one being studied.
How is transferability in qualitative research related to generalizability?
Transferability in qualitative research is analogous to generalizability, which involves applying findings to broader populations or settings.
What is dependability in qualitative research?
Dependability in qualitative research refers to the stability of data over time and conditions.
How is dependability in qualitative research assessed?
Dependability in qualitative research is assessed through methods like audits to ensure that the findings remain consistent over different situations and times.
What is confirmability in qualitative research?
Confirmability in qualitative research refers to the objectivity of the data, aiming for congruence between different individuals about data accuracy, relevance, or meaning.
How can confirmability in qualitative research be assessed?
Confirmability in qualitative research can be assessed through methods like maintaining an audit trail to ensure that the process and product can be audited by a third party with consistent findings.
What is validity in research?
Validity in research refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.
What are the two main types of validity discussed?
The two main types of validity discussed are internal validity and external validity.
Hawthorne effect
Change in behavior of study participants when they are aware that they are being observed.
How to deal with Hawthorne effect
Use a control group, administer placebo, or conduct blind experiments.
Experimenter's effect
Influence of researcher's behavior on the behavior of study subjects.
How does experimenter's effect influence study results?
It can introduce bias into the results as subjects may respond differently based on the behavior of the researcher.
Re-active effect of the pre-test
When subjects are sensitized to the treatment by taking the pre-test, influencing the results of the post-test.
Impact of re-active effect of the pre-test on post-test results
Pre-test can affect how subjects respond in the post-test, potentially confounding the results.
Halo effect
Tendency to rate a subject high or low based on the impression they have on the rater.
How does halo effect influence rating and evaluation?
It can introduce bias into the evaluation process as the rater's overall impression of the subject may affect their judgments.
Bias in research
Any influence that produces a distortion or error in the study results.
Why is bias a concern for researchers?
Bias can lead to inaccurate or unreliable findings, undermining the validity of the study.
How to control bias in research
Through research control, randomness, masking or blinding, and reflexivity.
What is research control and how does it help manage bias?
Research control involves holding constant other influences on the independent variable to understand the true relationship between variables and eliminate extraneous factors that could cloud this relationship.
Matching approach in research control
Involves selecting participants with similar characteristics to control extraneous variables.
How is the matching approach used to control extraneous variables?
By ensuring that participants in different groups have similar characteristics, reducing the potential influence of these variables on the study's results.
What is the difference between an instrument and instrumentation in research?
An instrument is a measurement device used to collect data, while instrumentation refers to the entire process of developing, testing, and using the measurement device in research.
What are the three categories of data collection instruments based on completion or administration?
The three categories are researcher-completed instruments, subject-completed or researcher-administered instruments, and instruments completed by the participant.
What are the three main types of data gathering tools?
The three main types are researcher-made tools, adopted tools, and adapted tools.
What are the characteristics of a good data collection instrument?
The characteristics include usability, validity, reliability, adequacy, appropriateness, and acceptability.
What are the four general estimators of reliability in data collection instruments?
The four estimators are inter-rater reliability, test-retest reliability, parallel-forms reliability, and internal consistency reliability.
What is the role of adequacy, appropriateness, and acceptability in the characteristics of a good data collection instrument?
Adequacy ensures sufficient content, appropriateness focuses on suitability, and acceptability assesses whether the instrument meets requirements and expectations.
Send to Chat
AI Edit
Normal Text
Highlight
Continue adding your notes here.
Scholarly Assistant's Insights
NCM111 LEC flashcard deck: Understand hypotheses, theories, reality testing, and research studies.
Education
Research Methods
Science
Academic Skills
Psychology
Ask Scholarly Assistant
Similar Pages
Login to Leave a Comment
Give your feedback, or leave a comment on a page to share your thoughts with the community.
Login