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Comparative Physiology
The study of physiology in different vertebrates and invertebrates, comparing animals to humans. Â
Physiological Research
The study of the functioning of cells, organs, and organ systems.
Physiology
The study of biological function, specifically how the body works from molecular mechanisms within cells to the actions of tissues, organs, and systems.
Homeostasis
A state of relative constancy in the internal environment of the body, maintained by feedback control systems.
 'Pathophysiology
The study of how physiological processes are altered in disease or injury.
Effectors
Muscles or glands that produce the desired effects in response to signals from the integrating center.
Negative Feedback Loop
A regulatory mechanism in which changes in the body stimulate sensors that send information to an integrating center, which then detects changes from a set point and relays messages to effectors to produce a response in the opposite direction.
Positive Feedback Loop
A regulatory mechanism in which the action of effectors amplifies the changes that stimulated their activity.
Antagonistic Effectors
Effectors with opposing actions, where the increasing activity of one effector is accompanied by the decreasing activity of an antagonistic effector.
Intrinsic Regulation
 -Regulation of organs by internal mechanisms within the organ itself.
Extrinsic Regulation
Regulation of organs by the ner vousand endocrine systems.
Nervous System
The system that controls the secretion of many endocrine glands and integrates with the endocrine system to regulate body processes and maintain homeostasis.
Cell
The basic unit of structure and function in the body.
Endocrine System
The system of glands that secrete hormones into the blood to regulate body processes and maintain homeostasis.
Hormones
Chemical regulators secreted by endocrine glands in response to specific stimuli, which affect the function of specific organs.
Tissues
Groups of cells with similar functions, categorized into four main primary tissues: muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective.
Organs
Structural and functional units made up of groupings of primary tissues, which are further grouped together into systems.
Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction, with three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth, each with specific characteristics and functions.
Striated Muscle
Muscle tissue with striations or stripes that extend across its width, including both skeletal and cardiac muscles.
Human Physiology
1The study of how the human body functions, with an emphasis on cause-and-effect mechanisms.Â
Scientific Method
The process by which knowledge in human physiology is obtained, involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis of results.
Body Functions
The physiological processes and activities that occur within the human body.
Cause and Effect Mechanisms
The relationship between a cause (an event or action) and its effect (the outcome or result).
Scientific Method
A systematic and logical approach used by scientists to investigate and understand phenomena, which involves observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data analysis, and conclusion.
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What is muscle tissue?
Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
What is skeletal tissue?
Skeletal muscle is often called voluntary muscle because its contraction is consciously controlled. Both skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated.
Where is skeletal muscle found?
Skeletal muscles are generally attached to bones at both ends by means of tendons. Exceptions include the tongue, superior portion of the esophagus, anal sphincter, and diaphragm.
How is skeletal muscle formed?
Beginning at about the fourth week of embryonic development, separate cells called myoblasts fuse together to form skeletal muscle fibers or myofibers. Each myofiber is a syncytium or multinucleate mass formed from the union of separate cells.
What is smooth muscle?
Smooth muscle is found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bronchioles, and the ducts of the urinary and reproductive systems. It is responsible for peristalsis, the coordinated wavelike contractions that push food through the digestive tract.
What is epithelial tissue?
Epithelial tissue consists of cells that form membranes which cover and line the body surfaces. It also includes glands, which can be classified as exocrine glands or endocrine glands.
What is cardiac muscle?
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. The myocardial cells are short, branched, and intimately interconnected to form a continuous fabric. They are characterized by intercalated discs, which mechanically and electrically couple the cells together.
What are epithelial membranes?
Epithelial membranes cover all body surfaces and line the cavity (lumen) of every hollow organ. They provide a barrier between the external environment and the internal environment of the body. Stratified epithelial membranes are specialized for protection, while simple epithelial membranes transport substances between the internal and external environments.
What is connective tissue?
Connective tissue is characterized by large amounts of extracellular material between the different types of cells. There are four types of primary connective tissue: connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood.
What is blood?
Blood is a type of connective tissue in which about half its volume is an extracellular fluid called plasma.
What is connective tissue proper?
Connective tissue proper has a matrix consisting of protein fibers and a gel-like ground substance. It is divided into subtypes: loose connective tissue (areolar connective tissue), dense regular connective tissue, and adipose tissue.
What is nervous tissue?
Nervous tissue consists of neurons, which are specialized for the generation and conduction of electrical events, and neuroglial or glial cells, which serve to bind neurons together and modify the extracellular environment of the nervous system.
What are neurons?
Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. They are the basic units of nerve cells and are responsible for conducting nerve impulses.
What is cartilage?
Cartilage consists of cells called chondrocytes surrounded by a semisolid ground substance that imparts elastic properties to the tissue. It is a type of supportive and protective tissue commonly called gristle.
What is bone?
Bone is produced as concentric layers or lamellae of calcified material laid around blood vessels. Bone cells are called osteoblasts.
What are neuroglial cells?
Neuroglial cells do not conduct impulses but instead serve to bind neurons together and modify the extracellular environment of the nervous system.
What are the functions of neuroglial cells?
The functions of neuroglial cells include supporting and protecting neurons, providing a framework for neuronal connections, regulating the extracellular environment, and assisting in the repair and regeneration of nervous tissue.
Describe the structure of two kinds of neurons.
Motor neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Sensory neurons have two processes. Bipolar neurons, found in the retina and cochlea, have two processes. Multipolar neurons, which are motor neurons and interneurons, have many dendrites and one axon.
What are astrocytes?
Astrocytes are a type of neuroglial cell with processes that end on capillaries and neurons. They play a role in the uptake of glucose and neurotransmitters, and help supply energy substrates for neurons.
What is the role of astrocyte endfeet?
Astrocyte endfeet take up glucose from blood capillaries and use it to help supply energy substrates for neurons.
What do astrocytes do with the neurotransmitter glutamate?
Astrocytes take up glutamate from synapses and convert it to glutamine (GLN), which is then recycled to the neurons.
Scholarly Assistant's Insights
Learn about physiology, body systems, tissues, and more in this detailed educational resource.
Physiology
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