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General Biology Review
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General Biology Review
General Biology Review
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1
Question
What are the eight fundamental characteristics shared by all living organisms?
Page 1
Answer
Living organisms are made of cells, possess highly ordered structures, reproduce, grow and develop, process energy, have evolutionary adaptations, respond to the environment, and regulate internal systems.
2
Question
Identify the three domains of life and the four kingdoms within the domain Eukarya.
Page 1
Answer
The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The four kingdoms within Eukarya are Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
3
Question
How do scientific hypotheses, theories, and laws differ in biology?
Page 1
Answer
A hypothesis is a testable, falsifiable prediction. A theory is a broad, well-tested explanation supported by extensive evidence. A law describes a consistent, often mathematical pattern in nature.
4
Question
What is the hierarchical relationship between a biome, ecosystem, community, and population?
Page 1
Answer
From largest to smallest: Biome (climate-based region), Ecosystem (community + physical environment), Community (interacting species), and Population (individuals of one species).
5
Question
Contrast primary and secondary succession in biological communities.
Page 1
Answer
Primary succession occurs in bare, lifeless areas without soil (e.g., volcanic rock). Secondary succession occurs where a disturbance leaves soil intact (e.g., after a forest fire) and is faster.
6
Question
How much energy is typically transferred from one trophic level to the next in a food web?
Page 1
Answer
Approximately 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost, primarily as heat.
7
Question
Distinguish between exponential and logistic population growth models.
Page 2
Answer
Exponential growth occurs with unlimited resources (J-shaped curve). Logistic growth occurs with limited resources as the population nears carrying capacity (K), resulting in an S-shaped curve.
8
Question
What are the primary structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Page 2
Answer
Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, are smaller, and have circular DNA. Eukaryotes have a nucleus, organelles (mitochondria, Golgi), linear chromosomes, and are larger.
9
Question
Define and compare active transport and facilitated diffusion.
Page 2
Answer
Facilitated diffusion is passive movement through proteins from high to low concentration (no energy). Active transport uses ATP to move molecules against their gradient (low to high concentration).
10
Question
How do changes in protons, neutrons, and electrons affect an atom?
Page 2
Answer
Changing protons creates a different element. Changing neutrons creates an isotope of the same element. Changing electrons creates an ion (cation if lost, anion if gained).
11
Question
Describe the main types of chemical bonds: ionic, polar covalent, non-polar covalent, and hydrogen.
Page 2
Answer
Ionic: electrons transferred between metals/nonmetals. Polar covalent: electrons shared unequally (partial charges). Non-polar covalent: electrons shared equally. Hydrogen: weak attraction between a bonded H and an electronegative atom (O, N).
12
Question
What are the four main classes of organic molecules and their primary functions?
Page 3
Answer
Carbohydrates (quick energy/structure), Lipids (long-term energy/membranes), Proteins (enzymes/structure/signaling), and Nucleic acids (genetic info storage/expression).
13
Question
State the summary chemical equation for cellular respiration.
Page 3
Answer
\(\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP} \text{ (+ heat)}\)
14
Question
What are the three main stages of cellular respiration and where do they occur?
Page 3
Answer
Glycolysis (cytoplasm), Citric Acid Cycle (mitochondrial matrix), and Electron Transport Chain (inner mitochondrial membrane).
15
Question
Compare the ATP yield of aerobic respiration versus fermentation.
Page 3
Answer
Aerobic respiration yields ~36-38 ATP per glucose. Fermentation yields only 2 ATP per glucose (from glycolysis).
16
Question
Define autotrophs and heterotrophs and provide examples of each.
Page 3
Answer
Autotrophs (self-feeders) make organic molecules from inorganic ones using light (e.g., plants, algae). Heterotrophs (other-feeders) must consume other organisms for energy (e.g., animals, fungi).
17
Question
State the summary chemical equation for photosynthesis.
Page 3
Answer
\(6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{light energy} \rightarrow \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2\)
18
Question
Contrast the light reactions and the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis.
Page 3
Answer
Light reactions (thylakoids) capture light to split water and produce \(\text{O}_2\), ATP, and NADPH. The Calvin Cycle (stroma) uses ATP and NADPH to fix \(\text{CO}_2\) into G3P (glucose).
19
Question
What is the primary source of a plant's dry mass?
Page 4
Answer
Carbon dioxide from the air. The carbon is 'fixed' into organic molecules that build the plant's body.
20
Question
Describe the adaptations of C4 and CAM plants to hot, dry climates.
Page 4
Answer
C4 plants (e.g., corn) spatially separate carbon fixation from the Calvin cycle. CAM plants (e.g., cacti) temporally separate them by opening stomata only at night.
21
Question
Outline the essential steps of DNA replication.
Page 4
Answer
1. Helicase unwinds DNA. 2. Primase adds RNA primer. 3. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides (5' to 3'). 4. Leading strand is continuous; lagging strand forms Okazaki fragments. 5. Ligase joins fragments.
22
Question
Compare mitosis and meiosis regarding their function and daughter cell outcome.
Page 5
Answer
Mitosis is for growth/repair, producing 2 identical diploid (2n) cells. Meiosis is for gamete production, producing 4 genetically unique haploid (n) cells.
23
Question
Explain Mendel's Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment.
Page 5
Answer
Law of Segregation: alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation so each gamete gets one. Law of Independent Assortment: genes for different traits sort independently of each other.
24
Question
What are the essential steps of DNA transcription and translation?
Page 5
Answer
Transcription: RNA polymerase binds the promoter, reads DNA, and builds mRNA. Translation: Ribosomes read mRNA codons; tRNAs bring amino acids to build a polypeptide chain.
25
Question
Define silent, missense, and nonsense mutations.
Page 6
Answer
Silent: no amino acid change. Missense: changes one amino acid to a different one. Nonsense: changes an amino acid codon to a premature stop codon, truncating the protein.
26
Question
What are the four requirements for evolution by natural selection?
Page 6
Answer
Natural selection requires heritable variation in traits, overproduction of offspring, competition for limited resources, and differential survival/reproduction (survival of the fittest).
27
Question
Distinguish between homologous and vestigial structures as evidence for evolution.
Page 6
Answer
Homologous structures are shared features from common ancestry (e.g., limb bones). Vestigial structures are remnants of features that served a purpose in ancestors but are no longer useful.
28
Question
What is genetic drift and where is its effect most significant?
Page 7
Answer
Genetic drift consists of random changes in allele frequencies. It is strongest and most significant in small populations (e.g., bottleneck or founder effects).
29
Question
Define a species according to the biological species concept.
Page 7
Answer
A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other groups.
30
Question
Contrast allopatric and sympatric speciation.
Page 7
Answer
Allopatric speciation involves a geographic barrier (e.g., river, mountain) that separates a population. Sympatric speciation occurs in the same geographic area, often through polyploidy or habitat specialization.