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Critical Thinking Fundamentals
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Critical Thinking Fundamentals
Critical Thinking Fundamentals
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1
Question
What is the definition of an argument in critical thinking?
Page 1
Answer
A group of statements where premises are given to support a conclusion.
2
Question
What characterizes deductive arguments according to the notes?
Page 1
Answer
The conclusion must be true if the premises are true.
3
Question
What is the first premise in the deductive argument example about Socrates?
Page 1
Answer
All humans are mortal.
4
Question
What is the conclusion in the deductive Socrates example?
Page 1
Answer
Socrates is mortal.
5
Question
How do inductive arguments differ from deductive ones in terms of conclusion certainty?
Page 1
Answer
The premises make the conclusion likely but not certain.
6
Question
What example illustrates an inductive argument in the notes?
Page 1
Answer
The sun has risen every day; therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
7
Question
What is the core process of inductive reasoning as defined?
Page 1
Answer
Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions that are probable but not guaranteed.
8
Question
What is enumerative induction and when is it weak?
Page 1
Answer
Making a general claim about a whole group based on a sample; weak if the sample is too small or biased, known as hasty generalization.
9
Question
What defines analogical reasoning and its common weakness?
Page 1
Answer
Reasoning that because two things are similar in some ways, they are probably similar in another; weak if important differences exist, called faulty analogy.
10
Question
What is causal reasoning and what are its potential errors?
Page 1
Answer
Reasoning that one event causes another; errors include assuming correlation equals causation or mixing up cause and effect.
11
Question
What is the definition of the scientific method in these notes?
Page 1
Answer
A systematic way of learning about the world using evidence, testing, and observation.
12
Question
What are the five steps of the scientific method listed?
Page 2
Answer
1. Identify problem, 2. Form hypothesis, 3. Make prediction, 4. Test, 5. Accept or reject hypothesis.
13
Question
Why is disconfirming evidence considered strong in hypothesis testing?
Page 2
Answer
If hypothesis implies prediction (H → P) and prediction fails (not P), then hypothesis is rejected (therefore not H).
14
Question
What makes confirming evidence weak for proving a hypothesis?
Page 2
Answer
If hypothesis implies prediction (H → P) and prediction occurs (P), it does not prove the hypothesis, as other explanations may fit.
15
Question
What is a control group in medical studies?
Page 2
Answer
No treatment.
16
Question
What defines a placebo in testing medical treatments?
Page 2
Answer
Fake treatment.
17
Question
What is double-blind in medical experiments?
Page 2
Answer
No one knows who gets treatment.
18
Question
How does replication reduce bias in experiments?
Page 2
Answer
An experiment can be repeated.
19
Question
What is the first criterion of adequacy for choosing the best theory?
Page 2
Answer
Testability: can it be proven wrong?
20
Question
Name the five criteria of adequacy for evaluating theories.
Page 2
Answer
Testability, fruitfulness, scope, simplicity, conservatism.
21
Question
What does fruitfulness mean as a criterion of adequacy?
Page 2
Answer
Makes a lot of new predictions.
22
Question
According to the notes, why is scope an important criterion for theories?
Page 2
Answer
Explains a lot.
23
Question
What does simplicity refer to in theory evaluation?
Page 2
Answer
Fewest assumptions.
24
Question
What is conservatism as a criterion of adequacy?
Page 2
Answer
Fits with known science.
25
Question
Why does the theory of evolution qualify as strong science per the criteria?
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Answer
Testable, makes predictions, explains many things.
26
Question
Why is creationism not considered scientific according to the notes?
Page 3
Answer
Untestable; evidence cannot disprove it.
27
Question
How should weird theories like UFOs or ghosts be evaluated?
Page 3
Answer
Must be tested like any scientific claim.
28
Question
What is the appeal to ignorance fallacy in the context of weird theories?
Page 3
Answer
Science cannot explain it, so it is supernatural.
29
Question
What does the S stand for in the SEARCH method?
Page 3
Answer
State the claim.
30
Question
What are the components of the SEARCH method for evaluating claims?
Page 3
Answer
S-State the claim, E-Evidence, A-Alternatives, R-Rate using criteria of adequacy, C-Testability, H-Fruitfulness.