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bio KATHLEEN
Flashcard Deck
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Proteins
Proteins scaffold to support and position active site. Binding site binds and orients substrate. Catalytic site reduces chemical activation energy.
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that help catalyze chemical reactions by bringing down the required energy level to speed up chemical reactions.
Chloroplast
Double-membraned pigment-containing organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that serve as a site of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
Metabolic process wherein light energy (sunlight) is transformed into chemical energy (food) by plants and some other organisms.
Bioenergetics
The study of energy flow through living systems, including the processes of energy transfer, conversion, and utilization.
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. 2. The entropy of any isolated system always increases. 3. The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
Cell Processes
1. Mechanical processes 2. Transportation processes 3. Chemical metabolism
Metabolism
The total chemical reactions of an organism, including anabolism (synthesizing small to big) and catabolism (breaking down big to small).
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
Entropy of a System
The entropy of any isolated system always increases. More chaos means more energy dispersion.
Cell Energy Forms
1. Kinetic energy (in motion) 2. Potential energy (stored) 3. Free energy (available to do work)
Activation Energy
The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to happen.
Exergonic Reaction
A chemical reaction that releases energy, typically from larger molecules to smaller ones.
Phosphates
Lone phosphates are used in different parts of the cell for various cellular processes and energy transfer.
Kinetic energy
Energy in motion
Potential energy
Energy stored
Free energy
Energy available to do work
Activation energy
Minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to happen
Exergonic reaction
Release of energy from larger matter to smallest
Active site
The site on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs
Forms of energy
Different types of energy such as kinetic, potential, chemical, heat, light, etc.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll
Chloroplasts
The organelles in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place
Structure of chloroplasts
Thylakoid, grana, stroma, and inner and outer membranes make up the structure of chloroplasts
Endergonic reaction
A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy to proceed
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often using ATP as a source of phosphate groups and energy
Energy coupling
The use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction
Light reaction
The part of photosynthesis that uses light energy to produce ATP and NADPH
Dark reaction
The part of photosynthesis that uses ATP and NADPH produced by light reaction to produce ADP and NADP
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that carries energy within cells
Untitled Flashcards
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Magnesium Absorbs light
Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll, a pigment that absorbs light during the process of photosynthesis.
Protons - They are called as the pockets of light
Protons are components of ATP synthase and play a role in the synthesis of ATP during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. They are often referred to as the "pockets of light" due to their involvement in capturing energy from light.
Photosynthesis is a two-phase anabolic pathway
Photosynthesis comprises two main phases: the light-capturing events and the light-dependent reactions (or light reactions). This process converts light energy into chemical energy for use by the cell.
Combines CO2 and H2O producing glucose and O2
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are combined in the presence of light to produce glucose and oxygen (O2) as the byproduct.
Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
Anoxygenic photosynthesis does not produce oxygen. Examples include purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria, green non-sulfur bacteria, and heliobacteria.
Oxygenic Photosynthesis
Oxygenic photosynthesis produces oxygen. Examples include cyanobacteria, some groups of algae, and essentially all land plants.
Autotrophs produce their own food
Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food. This includes chemoautotrophs, which use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates, and photoautotrophs, which capture energy from the sun to produce their own food (e.g., plants, algae, and some bacteria).
Summary of events in Photosynthesis
1) Light capturing events in chlorophyll. 2) Light-dependent reactions, also known as light reactions, occurring in the grana of the chloroplast.
Light Capturing Events
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, exciting the electrons in the chloroplast, leading to the production of ATP. This process occurs in the grana of the chloroplast.
Light Dependent Reactions
Also known as light reactions, these reactions utilize excited electrons to drive the production of ATP and produce hydrogen and oxygen as by-products from the dissociation of water molecules. They occur in the grana of the chloroplast.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts, commonly found in leaves, capture light energy essential for photosynthesis. They contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, thylakoids, and stroma.
Thylakoids and Grana
Thylakoids are flattened sac-like membranes found within the chloroplast, arranged in stacks called grana. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
Accessory Pigments
Accessory pigments, such as carotenoids, are used in addition to chlorophyll to expand the spectrum of light absorption. They reflect orange and yellow wavelengths and are revealed in the autumn when chlorophyll disintegrates, causing fall colors.
Organized Photosystems
Photosystems, organized networks of chlorophyll and accessory pigments, harvest energy from various wavelengths of light and are essential for the light-capturing events of photosynthesis.
Flavonoids and Phytochrome
Flavonoids, including anthocyanins, produce bright red colors in petals, fruits, stems, and barks. Phytochrome can detect light and act as a trigger or switch in various cellular processes.
Antenna Complexes
Antenna complexes are networks of chlorophyll and accessory pigments that capture light energy during photosynthesis, enhancing the efficiency of light absorption.
Types of Photosynthesis
Anoxygenic photosynthesis does not produce oxygen, while oxygenic photosynthesis releases oxygen as a byproduct.
Composition of Photosystem
Photosystem is composed of organized networks of chlorophyll and accessory pigments, working together to capture energy from different wavelengths of light.
Anthocyanins produce a bright red color in
petals, fruits, stems, barks
Phytochrome can detect light as a trigger or a switch in
antenna complexes, networks of chlorophyll and accessory pigments
Types of Photosynthesis Composition of Photosystem: Able to capture many available wavelengths of light, passes excited electrons on to the reaction center
antenna complexes, networks of chlorophyll and accessory pigments
Reaction Center is composed of specialized chlorophyll molecule that passes its excited electrons to an electron acceptor
specialized chlorophyll molecule collects energy from the antenna complex, energy excites electrons and passes excited electrons to an electron acceptor
Photosystem II (PSII): Also known as P680, occurs first in the light-dependent reaction, donates its excited electrons (oxidation) to an electron transport chain, splits water to replace the electrons it donated (2H2O \u2192 O2 + 4H + 4e-)
Photosystem I (PSI): Also known as P700, occurs second in the light-dependent reaction, donates its excited electrons to reduce NADP to NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) (NADP + e- \u2192 NADPH), accepts the electrons from the electron transport chain between PSII and PSI to replace the electrons it donated
The Electron Transport Chain: Occurs between PSII and PSI, electrons are passed through an electron transport chain (ETC), the energy is used to pump protons from the stroma into the thylakoid space, creates a proton concentration gradient, protons diffuse through ATP synthase, ATP synthase makes ATP that is released into the stroma through chemiosmosis
The Calvin Cycle: Biochemical pathway that allows for carbon fixation, incorporates CO2 into organic molecules, occurs in the stroma, uses ATP from light-dependent reactions and NADPH from light-dependent reaction
3 Phases in The Calvin Cycle: 1. Carbon Fixation, 2. Reduction, 3. Regeneration of RUBP
How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy: A chemical process that releases energy from organic compounds (food) gradually converting it into energy that is stored in ATP molecules
Aerobic Respiration
The process of breaking down food gradually, converting it into energy that is stored in ATP molecules.
Light Reaction
The first stage of photosynthesis where light is absorbed and converted into chemical energy.
Untitled Flashcards
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Aerobic Respiration
Process of cellular respiration that uses oxygen to produce energy from food.
Anaerobic Respiration
Type of cellular respiration that does not use oxygen to produce energy.
Alcoholic Fermentation
Type of anaerobic respiration that produces ethanol from glucose.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Type of anaerobic respiration that produces lactic acid from glucose.
Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells release energy from food and convert it into ATP.
Glycolysis
The first pathway of cellular respiration that partially oxidizes glucose into two pyruvate molecules.
Krebs Cycle
The second stage of cellular respiration that completes the breakdown of glucose into CO2 and produces ATP.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
The final stage of cellular respiration that produces the majority of ATP by transferring electrons through a series of proteins.
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate; the organic molecule containing high-energy phosphate bonds that supplies energy to cells.
NADH
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide; a molecule that traps electrons from glucose to make energy stored as NADH.
FADH2
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide; a molecule that stores energy as FADH2 in cellular respiration.
Mitochondria
The organelles where cellular respiration takes place, including the Krebs cycle and ETC.
Matrix
The space inside the cristae of the mitochondria where the Krebs cycle takes place.
Glycolysis Summary
Takes place in the cytosol; anaerobic; doesn't use oxygen; requires input of 2 ATP; glucose splits into two molecules of pyruvate; also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP, net gain of 2 ATP.
Where does glycolysis take place?
Takes place in the cytosol
Does glycolysis require oxygen?
Anaerobic, doesn't use oxygen
How many ATP are required as input for glycolysis?
Requires input of 2 ATP
What does glucose split into during glycolysis?
Glucose splits into two molecules of pyruvate
How many NADH and ATP are produced in glycolysis?
Produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP, net gain of 2 ATP
Describe the formation of acetyl CoA.
1. Junction between glycolysis and Krebs cycle 2. Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA 3. Pyruvate molecules translocated into the mitochondrion 4. A CO2 is removed from pyruvate 5. Coenzyme A is attached to the acetyl group
Who is associated with the Krebs cycle?
Hans Krebs
Does the Krebs cycle require oxygen?
Requires oxygen, aerobic
How many ATP are produced in the Krebs cycle?
Produces 2 ATP
Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
How many stages are there in cellular respiration?
3 stages of cellular respiration
Untitled Flashcards
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Krebs Cycle
Each turn of the Krebs Cycle produces 4NADH, 1FADH2, 3CO2, and 1 ATP.
Krebs Cycle and Glucose
For each Glucose molecule, the Krebs Cycle produces 8NADH, 2FADH2, 6CO2, and 2ATP.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Oxygen pulls electrons from NADH and FADH2 down the chain to produce 34 ATP. Requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
ETC and ATP production
For every FADH2 molecule, 2 ATPs are produced. For every NADH molecule, 3 ATPs are produced. Chemiosmosis is used to produce ATP using the energy of H gradients across membranes to phosphorylate ADP.
ATP Synthase
A protein in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that uses energy of the ion gradient to power ATP synthesis. One ATP can be formed from ADP for every H ion that flows through ATP synthase.
Anaerobic Respiration
In the absence of oxygen, only a few ATP are produced from glucose.
Aerobic Respiration
In the presence of oxygen, many more ATP are produced. Oxygen is used as the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain.
ATP Production Summary
Glycolysis: 2 ATP, Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP, ETC: 32 ATP. Grand Total: 36 ATP for the whole cellular respiration.
Muscle Fatigue
Large organisms need a lot of ATP to keep fueled. When conducting a high level of activity, breathing doesn't supply enough air for cell activities. Lactic acid accumulation in muscle cells causes cramping and slows down activity.
Oxygen Fermentation
Breathing provides enough oxygen for normal activities, but in high activity, breathing doesn't supply enough air for cells. Oxygen fermentation produces a large amount of ATP.
Oxygen Fermentation Summary
Occurs when O2 is not present, known as anaerobic. It is called lactic acid fermentation in muscle cells, which makes muscles tired, and alcoholic fermentation in yeast, producing ethanol. It nets only 2 ATP.
Lactic Acid Accumulation in Muscle Cells
Lactic acid accumulates in muscle cells, causing cramps and slowing down activity. When you begin to breathe normally again, the lactic acid breaks down, and the O2 debt is paid.
Uses of Fermentation
Fermentation is used by yeast, some bacteria, and in the baking, winemaking, brewing, and dairy processing industries. It is used in baking, winemaking, brewing, cheese processing, buttermilk, sour cream, yogurt, sauerkraut, pickles, and the souring of dairy products through lactic acid production by anaerobic bacteria.
Alcoholic Fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation is used to make bread rise, as well as for beer and wine production.
