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POLI 369 Chapter 8-10
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POLI 369 Chapter 8-10
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Chapter 8 (Pg. 1-20)
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What river gave birth to Egypt and its civilization?
The River Nile
What was the predominant social feature of ancient Egypt's civilization?
Peasant tributary taxation system
What was the primary source of revenue for the pharaonic ruling class in ancient Egypt?
Agricultural surplus and tributary taxation system
Who invaded the Ottoman province of Egypt in 1798?
General Napoleon Bonaparte
Who was left in control of Egypt after the British departed in 1803?
Muhammad Ali
Who was the governor of Egypt from 1805 to 1849?
Muhammad Ali
What were Muhammad Ali's primary objectives for Egypt?
To build a modern industrial infrastructure, promote economic diversification, develop a strong national army, and create a modern state bureaucracy.
What resources did Muhammad Ali use to finance his reforms?
Taxes on a peasantry composed of small landholding families.
How did Muhammad Ali modernize Egypt's industrial sector?
By adopting foreign technology and establishing state workshops and factories.
What territories did Muhammad Ali's army conquer in his expansion of power?
The Arabian Peninsula and Greater Syria.
What was the threat perceived by Britain regarding Muhammad Ali's expansion of power?
The threat to Britain's strategic and economic interests.
What was the similarity between Muhammad Ali's reforms and those of Japan's Meiji restoration and Russia's Peter the Great?
Muhammad Ali's modern reforms were quite similar to those of Japan's late nineteenth century Meiji restoration and Russia's Peter the Great more than a century earlier.
What were the forces that led to Egypt's arrested development?
Proximity to Europe and the threat to Britain's strategic and economic interests.
Why did Egypt's arrested development happen?
The proximity of Egypt to Europe and the threat it posed to Britain's strategic and economic interests, lack of local social conditions maturity, and successors' abandonment of economic policy for self-reliance.
What was the first force contributing to Egypt's arrested development?
The proximity of Egypt to Europe and the threat it posed to Britain's strategic and economic interests, leading to the Anglo-Ottoman military campaign of 1840 and flooding the country with foreign-imported goods.
What was the second force contributing to Egypt's arrested development?
The lack of local social conditions maturity and Muhammad Ali's successors abandoning the economic policy of self-reliance in favor of Europeanizing Egypt with European capital, leading to cotton plantation for Lancashire and integration into world markets.
What was the consequence of Egypt's integration into the world markets?
The country fell into ruinous debt, resulting in the imposition of the European Debt Commission known as the Dual Control in 1876.
How did the ruling class transform itself in the context of the Dual Control?
The ruling class seized land and transformed itself into a class of agrarian capitalists or landowners whose prosperity was dependent on global markets.
What were the two main classes that emerged in Egypt under European economic domination?
The landed aristocracy and the urban Third Estate, consisting of clerks, artisans, traditional merchants, administrators, and intellectuals, as well as the rural equivalent of village notables.
What did the Third Estate symbolize in Egypt's rekindled renaissance?
The Third Estate symbolized an adaptation to cultural and technical innovation, a renewal of a critical spirit, and a spirit of nationalism and patriotism, symbolized by the 1880s movement led by Col Ahmed Urabi.
How did the Third Estate struggle to develop under European economic domination?
The Third Estate failed to develop sufficiently along capitalist lines and remained shackled by a pre-capitalist culture, desperately clinging to tradition in an attempt to preserve its identity.
Who was Col Ahmed Urabi and what did he symbolize?
Col Ahmed Urabi was an army officer from a peasant background and a symbol of Egyptian discontent.
Who is Ahmed Urabi?
Ahmed Urabi was an army officer from a peasant background and a symbol of Egyptian discontent with the increasing European influence in his country.
What did Urabi and his followers gain control of?
Urabi and his followers gained control of the Egyptian Parliament.
When did the British invade Egypt?
The British invaded Egypt in 1882.
How long did the British impose their rule on Egypt?
The British imposed their rule on Egypt for 72 years.
What did the British oppose during their rule in Egypt?
The British opposed national demands and only grudgingly gave way under pressure.
Who allowed an Egyptian legislative council in 1913?
Lord Kitchener allowed an Egyptian legislative council in 1913.
What was ignored by the British during their rule in Egypt?
Social and political problems, as well as the development of an educational infrastructure, were almost entirely ignored by the British.
What led much of the nationalist movement to develop independently?
The British refusal to allow greater self-government led much of the nationalist movement to develop independently.
Chapter 8 (Pg. 21-40)
Study
What happened during the 2000 national election in Egypt?
The 2000 elections were conducted with oversight of judges and saw gains for opposition parties, a dramatic ousting of incumbent NDP deputies, and increased representation of opposition members.
What was the allocation of seats in the 2000 election?
The ruling NDP received the majority of seats, while 256 independent candidates won seats, and 35 opposition members were elected to the Assembly.
Why was the Muslim Brotherhood successful in the 2000 elections?
The government's clampdown on the Muslim Brotherhood led to sympathy for the group, and the imprisonment of senior members led to the Brotherhood running a slate of young and relatively unknown candidates, making it less susceptible to government scrutiny.
What was the criticism of the Assembly's composition since 1979?
Gender disparity was a criticism, with a record number of women candidates running for office, resulting in 5 winning the election and a further 6 women appointed by Mubarak, marking the highest level of female representation since 1979.
What resistance did Mubarak's authoritarian tendencies face after the turn of the century?
Mubarak's authoritarian tendencies increasingly met resistance from within and outside the country after the turn of the century, with external pressures playing an important role.
How has the U.S. engaged with authoritarian client regimes in the region?
The U.S. has perpetuated the power of authoritarian client regimes that serve its interests, engaging in rhetoric about democracy promotion while allocating democracy-oriented aid to projects not likely to undermine local authority.
What does the US give money to other countries for?
The US gives money to other countries to help them make changes in their government and society.
What did the Mubarak regime do to make people think they were promoting democracy?
They set up a National Council for Human Rights, canceled the State Security Courts, and talked to opposition forces.
What did the Muslim Brotherhood want to change in Egypt?
The Muslim Brotherhood wanted political, economic, religious, and social reform. They also wanted more freedom and democracy.
What is the US accused of doing even though it talks about promoting democracy?
The US is accused of supporting authoritarian rulers and not really promoting democracy.
What did the initiative call for in the religious sphere?
The formation of a committee of senior religious scholars for the grand imam of al Azhar to be elected, and for Muslim endowments to be separated from the state budget.
What did the Egyptian Movement for Change, Kefaya, denounce?
The NDP's political monopoly and called on Mubarak to step down. They also rejected Gamal as a candidate for high office.
Who presented the founding document of Kefaya at its first conference?
Highly respected former judge Tariq al Bishri.
What did Kefaya urge for?
Immediate political and constitutional reform, the independence of the judiciary, and the abrogation of emergency and extraordinary laws.
What movement managed to organize public rallies on domestic issues without prior consultation with the authorities?
Kefaya
In September 2004, a group of opposition parties formed an Alliance of National Forces for Reform. Name three principal legal opposition parties that joined this alliance.
Wafd Party, National Progressive Unionist Party, Tagammu Party
What were the six main reforms called for by the Alliance of National Forces for Reform in September 2004?
1. End to the state of emergency 2. Constitutional amendment to allow direct election of the president 3. Limitation of any individual to two 5-year presidential terms 4. Free elections under judicial supervision 5. Greater freedom to establish political parties 6. Loosening of government's controls over unions, syndicates, and civil society groups 7. End to the ruling party's dominance of the state media
What change to the Constitution did the president call for in February 2005 to allow competition in presidential elections?
Change to Article 76 of the Constitution
What organization mobilized thousands of Islamist students to call for the cancellation of the Emergency Law in March 2005?
Muslim Brotherhood
How many voters' signatures were candidates required to secure to be nominated for direct multicandidate presidential elections as demanded by the Brotherhood members of Parliament?
20000
Direct multicandidate presidential elections
Elections where multiple candidates run for president and people can vote for the candidate of their choice.
Full judicial supervision
The oversight and control of the election process by the judicial system to ensure fairness and legality.
Candidate nomination requirement
The rule that candidates must gather the signatures of 20,000 voters to be officially nominated for the presidential election.
Commission for electoral supervision
A group led by the chairman of the Supreme Constitutional Court and four Councilors from the Court of Cassation, responsible for overseeing the electoral process to ensure fairness and legality.
Independent presidential candidate
A candidate who gives up their affiliation with a political party and runs for president without any partisan affiliation.
Kefaya movement
A political movement in Egypt that organized protests demanding an end to Mubarak's rule and the implementation of political reforms.
NDP monopoly over politics
The National Democratic Party's control over political activities, ensuring that their interests were maintained during the drafting of constitutional amendments.
Chapter 8 (Pg. 41-45)
Study
What did Egyptian airstrikes in Libya lead to during 2014-15?
Increased tensions between Egypt and Libya.
How did the Obama administration react to the coup in Egypt?
They criticized the coup but did not use the word 'coup' to avoid ending military aid as per US law.
What did US Secretary of State John Kerry announce during his visit to Cairo after the coup?
All weapons deliveries and aid were being resumed.
What narrative did Sisi's backers propagate about Washington's favoritism?
They claimed that Washington had favored the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamists.
What did Human Rights Watch report in its 2015 report about Egypt's constitution?
The 2014 constitution permits military trials for civilians and expands military court jurisdiction to cover crimes on public, state-owned, or vital property.
What is the name of the largest mosque in Egypt that Sisi inaugurated in the New Administrative Capital?
The largest mosque in Egypt is Al-Fattah Al-Alim Mosque.
What is the name of the largest cathedral in the Middle East that Sisi inaugurated in the New Administrative Capital?
The largest cathedral in the Middle East is the Cathedral of the Nativity.
What is the name of the two strategically located islands in the Red Sea that Sisi transferred sovereignty over to Saudi Arabia?
The islands are Tiran and Sanafir.
Who contested against Sisi in the presidential election of 2018?
Moussa Mustapha Moussa from the El Ghad Party contested against Sisi in the 2018 presidential election.
What percentage of eligible voters cast their ballots in the presidential election of 2018?
Only 44 percent of eligible voters cast their ballots in the 2018 presidential election.
Who ran for reelection as president in March 2018?
Sisi
How many votes did Sisi win in the election?
21,835,387 votes
Who contested Sisi in the election?
Moussa Mustapha Moussa from the El Ghad Party
When did the Assembly approve constitutional amendments that extended Sisi's presidency?
April 2019
What militant group announced its allegiance to ISIS in November 2014?
Ansar Beit el Maqdis (ABM)
What was the stated goal of ABM from 2011 to 2013?
To free Jerusalem from Western influence and rid Egypt of any Israeli presence
What area witnessed a significant increase in terrorist attacks after the 2011 revolution?
Sinai area
How did Wilayat Sinai carry out attacks to avoid direct contact with the Egyptian army?
Via remote targeting and booby trapping, such as roadside bombs
What happened in October 2014 regarding Islamist dissidents in Egypt?
The Egyptian military began to crack down on Wilayat Sinai in counter-terror operations.
How did Wilayat Sinai avoid direct contact with the better-equipped Egyptian army?
They turned to attacks via remote targeting and booby trapping, such as roadside bombs.
What was the group Wilayat Sinai's affiliation in 2014?
They announced their affiliation with the Islamic State and changed their name to Sinai Province.
How many active members did Wilayat Sinai have in 2014?
Believed to have between 1000 and 1500 active members.
Where did Wilayat Sinai expand outside Sinai by creating cells?
They created cells in some governorates, including Cairo and Giza.
What prompted the renewal of the state of emergency in Egypt in November 2017?
Suicide bombers killed dozens at two churches on Palm Sunday in April 2017.
What happened in November 2017 in the village of Bir al Abed in Northern Sinai?
Mosques were attacked, resulting in 305 deaths.
What did President Sisi do in terms of Egypt's foreign policy in coordination with the United States?
He made efforts to play an active role in the conflicts in Syria, Libya, and Yemen, prompting President Trump to describe him as his favorite dictator.
What role did Egypt play in the Syrian conflict in January 2015?
Egypt hosted several meetings for the Syrian Opposition groups, most prominently the Cairo Conference of Syrian Opposition.
What did Egypt's position lean toward after the Russian intervention in Syria in September 2015?
It leaned more toward supporting Bashar al-Assad.
What is Egypt's official position regarding stability in Libya?
It rotates around three principles: respecting unity and sovereignty of Libya, non-interference in Libya's internal affairs, and commitment to the comprehensive dialogue and non-violence.
What was the aim of the Cairo Declaration of June 6, 2020?
It aimed at reaching a cease-fire in Libya.
Chapter 9 (Pg. 46 - 65)
Study
What is the name of the country discussed in the chapter?
The Republic of Turkey
When did the Ottoman Empire and its allies face defeat?
1918
What advantage did the Republic of Turkey have after the Ottoman defeat?
Inheriting the Ottoman army and bureaucracy
What was the major ethnic minority in the Republic of Turkey?
The Kurds
What transition did Turkey eventually make from one-party rule?
Competitive democratic elections
What agreement was signed by Turkish and British representatives after the war?
The armistice agreement
Who fled to Berlin in November 1918?
Enver Talat and Jamal, the CUP leaders
What happened on November 13, 1918?
Allied ships anchored at Istanbul and their forces disembarked
What intensified the nationalist spirit in Turkey?
Greek forces invading Smyrna (Izmir) on February 15, 1919
Who harnessed the militant nationalism and driving the invaders out of Turkey?
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who later became known as Kemal Atat\u00fcrk, the father of the Turks
Where was Mustafa Kemal Pasha born?
Salonika, in 1881
Who was Mustafa Kemal?
Mustafa Kemal was a national hero who led the nationalist struggle for dignity and independence for the Turkish nation.
What did Mustafa Kemal reject?
Mustafa Kemal rejected any attempt to restore control of the Arab countries.
What were the perils to Turkish nationalism?
The perils to Turkish nationalism included Greeks and Armenians claiming regions in Anatolia, Kurdish separatism, and Allied Powers' interest in southern Anatolia.
What did the Treaty of Svres foreclose?
The Treaty of Svres, if implemented, would have foreclosed any dream of independence for Turkey.
Q: What is the Svres Treaty?
A: The Svres Treaty was a treaty that was seen as a sentence of death for Turkey, and it provided added impetus for the nationalist struggle.
Q: What was the position of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire?
A: The Armenians historically played an important role in business and intellectual life within the Ottoman Empire.
Q: What happened to the Armenian population during World War I?
A: The Armenian population in Anatolia was uprooted, and perhaps a million were killed during World War I.
Q: What did Kemal's victory complete?
A: Kemal's victory completed the process of uprooting the Armenian population and winning control over Anatolia.
Q: What significant event occurred in September 1922?
A: In September 1922, the Turkish nationalists took Smyrna/Izmir, and the Greek population of Anatolia fled.
What happened in 1922?
The Turkish nationalists took Smyrna (Izmir) and the Greek population fled.
What did the Treaty of Lausanne do?
It superseded the harsh terms imposed by the Allies and granted Turkish nationalists what they had struggled for.
When did the Grand National Assembly abolish the Sultanate?
On November 1, 1922.
What happened in March 1924?
The GNA abolished the caliphate, ending the Ottoman dynasty.
What did the prevailing concepts of modernization stress?
They stressed that traditional features of any society, notably those related to religion, must be obliterated to transform into a modern one.
Chapter 9 (Pg. 66 - 85)
Study
What happened on the evening of July 15, 2016?
Military troops blocked roads in Ankara, Istanbul, Marmaris, and other parts of Turkey. Fighter jets and helicopters flew over Ankara, and many government headquarters were bombarded. A curfew was announced, and martial law was to be put into practice.
Who led the coup attempt on July 15, 2016?
The Council for Peace at Home, a new executive body, led the coup attempt. They briefly took over the Turkish State Broadcaster TRT and forced its news anchor to read out a statement addressed to the Turkish people and the world.
What were the insurgents' complaints against the government?
The insurgents claimed that the government had systematically infringed on the rights of the Turkish citizens, threatened vital institutions of the state, abolished fundamental rights and freedoms, and allowed corruption and pilferage within the bureaucracy.
Who did the insurgents blame for the loss of international reputation and the country's autocratic governance?
The insurgents blamed the president and government officials for the loss of international reputation and the country's autocratic governance. They accused them of making wrong decisions, leading to the failure to combat growing terrorism and reaching serious levels of corruption within the bureaucracy.
What was the main goal of the Turkish Armed Forces according to the insurgents?
The Turkish Armed Forces sought to safeguard the country's indivisible unity and continue the Peace at Home, Peace in the World ideal, in the wake of the extraordinary sacrifices made under the leadership of Atat\u00fcrk.
What is the name of the organization that founded and guards the Turkish Republic?
Turkish Armed Forces
Who was the leader of the Turkish Republic at the time of establishment?
Great Atat\u00fcrk
What is the ideal to continue the country's indivisible unity?
Peace at Home, Peace in the World
What is the purpose of safeguarding the survival of the nation and the state?
To eliminate threats and de facto obstructions, stop corruption, and allow efficient operations against terrorism
What values does the Turkish Republic aim to uphold according to the passage?
Secular, democratic, social, and legal state
Who announced the overthrow of the government during the incident?
President Erdo\u011fan
Where was President Erdo\u011fan at the time of the incident?
On holiday in Marmaris
Who did President Erdo\u011fan blame for the coup attempt?
Fethullah G\u00fclen and his Hizmet Movement
What did President Erdo\u011fan call on his followers to do during the incident?
Take to the streets to defend his government
What did Prime Minister Binali Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m announce during the incident?
A coup attempt was underway by a faction of the Army
What was President Erdo\u011fan's response to the coup attempt during his televised speech?
In Turkey, armed forces are not governing the state or leading the state. They cannot
Who did President Erdo\u011fan blame for the coup attempt?
Fethullah G\u00fclen and his Hizmet Movement
What was President Erdo\u011fan's plan to do after the coup attempt?
Clean up the army and re-establish the constitutionally enshrined values of a secular democratic state
Who did President Erdo\u011fan call on to take action against the coup plotters?
His followers, to take to the streets to defend his government
What was the plan to clean up the army after the coup attempt?
Erdoan announced his plan to clean up the army and said the uprising was a gift from God to us.
Who was the suspected leader of the coup attempt?
Former Colonel Muharrem Kse, who was associated with Fethullah Glen, was suspected as the leader of the coup attempt.
What punishment did the suspected coup plotters face?
Almost 40,000 persons were arrested, including high officers, judges, and soldiers, and around 15,000 education staff were suspended.
Who was accused of plotting the coup but refused the accusation?
Fethullah Glen, who had voluntarily left for exile in the United States in 1999, was accused of plotting the coup, but he categorically refused the accusation.
What was the reason behind the failure of the coup attempt according to speculation?
One reason for the failure of the coup attempt was that the National Intelligence Agency had wind of it, forcing the plotters to advance the timing and making them appear incompetent.
What did Erdogan impose after the coup attempt?
Erdogan imposed a 3-month state of emergency and temporarily suspended part of the European Convention on Human Rights.
What is the European Convention on Human Rights according to Human Rights Watch?
The European Convention on Human Rights is a set of rights and freedoms that everyone in Europe should have. Human Rights Watch reported in 2020 that the Turkish government misused terrorism charges to arrest and imprison many people.
What is the Glen movement and how does the Turkish government view it?
The Glen movement is known as the Fethullahist Terrorist Organization (FET) by the Turkish government, and it is considered a terrorist organization by them. Many people associated with the Glen movement were arrested and imprisoned on terrorism charges.
How has the Turkish regime changed after the attempted coup?
After the attempted coup, the Turkish regime became more authoritarian. There were a large number of arrests, raising concerns that the coup was used as a pretext to tighten the president's grip on power.
How did President Erdogan demonstrate authoritarian behavior post-coup?
President Erdogan increased his powers and tried to make the regime more presidential rather than a parliamentary system. He used populist rhetoric to denounce enemies and critics saw his actions as a turn towards authoritarianism and an Ottoman revival.
What is the Kurdish insurgency and how has it affected human rights in Turkey?
The Kurdish insurgency involves Kurds in Turkey who have worked to promote their own separate nationalism through peaceful and violent means. This has led to harsh treatment from the political and military establishment, resulting in severe civil strife in Eastern Turkey.
Chapter 9 (Pg. 86 - 87)
Study
Relationship between Turkey and the United States
There is a complex relationship between Turkey and the United States, with both tension and harmony in specific issues like intervention in Syria.
Potential usefulness of the United States-Turkish alliance
The United States-Turkish alliance is important for both countries and the potential cost of ending it is high.
State of ferment in Turkey in 2015
In 2015, Turkey was in a state of ferment, experiencing significant changes and uncertainties.
Kemal Atat\u00fcrk's role in Turkey
Kemal Atat\u00fcrk successfully led a resistance movement and constructed a new identity for Turkey, based on a Turkishness imposed on a largely Turkish-speaking Muslim population.
Kemalism and its impact on Turkey
Kemalism, especially its secularism and imposition of a foreign culture, required an authoritarian state and underwent democratization following World War II.
Quasi Islamist party in Turkey
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, a quasi Islamist party (AKP) was successful in taking the reins democratically and surviving the wrath of the deep state.
What is Kemalism?
Kemalism is the political ideology of Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk, the founder of modern Turkey. It emphasizes secularism, nationalism, and westernization.
Who was responsible for banning political parties that threatened Kemalist secularism?
The military repeatedly banned political parties that threatened Kemalist secularism.
Which party was successful in taking the reins democratically and surviving the wrath of the deep state?
The quasi-Islamist party, the AKP, was successful in taking the reins democratically and surviving the wrath of the deep state.
What did the AKP largely bury according to a scholar?
According to a scholar, the AKP largely buried the deep state.
What kind of identity has influenced the foreign policy of Turkey?
The Turks' millennium-old Islamic identity has influenced the foreign policy of Turkey.
Who accused the government of a plot to close down the CHP?
Kemal K\u0131l\u0131\u00e7daro\u011flu, the leader of the CHP, accused the government of a plot to close down the party.
What shift has been conducive to reconciliation with the Kurdish minority?
The shift from the Kemalist Turkish identity to a reemphasis on Islam has been conducive to reconciliation with the Kurdish minority.
Who was involved in negotiations for a settlement with the HDP?
Abdullah \u00d6calan, still in prison, was involved in negotiations for a settlement with the HDP.
What support was linked to a revitalization of negotiations for a settlement with the HDP?
Support for key parts of the government's pending security bill was linked to a revitalization of negotiations for a settlement with the HDP.
What political party is mentioned in the passage?
HDP (Peoples Democratic Party)
What did the HDP leader previously criticize?
The pending security bill and the proposal for presidentialism
What was the risk for the HDP in contesting the election?
Not getting any seats by failing to pass the 10 percent threshold
What support did Erdoan hope to gain?
Support for a large enough majority to adopt a new constitution without the need for a referendum
What group took control of much of the Syrian countryside?
Kurdish PYD fighters, affiliated with the PKK
Which country supported the PYD fighters in Syria?
The United States and some of its NATO allies
What was Erdoan's viewpoint regarding the United States' support for PYD?
He viewed it as supporting an existential threat to the Turkish state
What increased the regional strategic situation?
Russian military intervention in Syria in support of Assad in September 2015
What led to an apology from Ankara to Russia?
A Turkish Air Force fighter shot down a Russian fighter bomber
What geopolitical alignments became indistinct after the failed military coup in 2016?
Geopolitical alignments became increasingly indistinct
What is the NATO alliance?
NATO is an international alliance of countries, including Turkey, that work together for security and defense.
Who alerted Erdoan about some media reports?
Erdoan was reported to have been alerted by Vladimir Putin and Russian intelligence.
What did Erdoan and the AKP effectively bury?
Erdoan and the AKP have effectively buried the Kemalist secular state and created a neo-Ottoman irredentist power in the Middle East.
Who are the powerful challengers posing a potential threat to the status quo presided over by the United States?
The revisionist Islamic Republic of Iran, Russia's alliance with the Syrian Arab Republic, and their regional proxies are a rising constellation of powerful challengers.
What role does Trkiye play in the current balance of forces?
Trkiye plays the role of the unpredictable joker in the current balance of forces.
Chapter 10 (Pg. 88 - 107)
Study
What is the land area of Iran?
Iran has a land area of 1,648,000 square km.
How much of Iran's land is arable?
Only 10-15% of Iran's land is arable.
What was the estimated population of Iran in 2010?
In 2010, Iran's population was estimated to be nearing 85 million.
What percentage of the population lived in urban areas in 2020?
In 2020, 75.5% of the population lived in urban areas, an increase from 69.1% in 2011.
What is the core ethnic group of Iran?
The core ethnic group of Iran is the Persians, who are Indo-Europeans.
Where did the linguistic forebears of Persians migrate from?
The linguistic forebears of Persians migrated from Central Eurasia in the second millennium BCE.
What does the name 'Iran' mean?
Iran means 'land of the Aryans'.
What was the invaders' way of life characterized by?
The invaders' way of life was characterized by mobility, and they were renowned for their skills as mounted archers and warriors.
What religion did Iranians convert to?
Iranians converted to Islam and absorbed other aspects of Islamic culture.
What was the new form of the Persian language that emerged eventually?
A new form of the Persian language emerged that rivaled Arabic as a literary medium.
What did the courtly culture of imperial Iran provide for Abbasid governance in Baghdad?
The courtly culture of imperial Iran provided an important model for Abbasid governance in Baghdad, distinguishing it from the simplicity of the earlier Umayyad caliphate.
What new form of language arose as a rival to Arabic in much of the Islamic world?
A new form of Persian language.
Who embraced Islam and ruled the lands of the Islamic Empire for almost a hundred years?
The Mongols.
What did the Turkish Safavid dynasty create to bolster its legitimacy?
The fiction of an ancestral link to the founder of the dynasty.
What did Ismael I, the first Safavid king, fully embrace and turn into the state religion?
Shiism.
What religion did the Safavid monarchs impose on the population?
Twelver Shiism.
When did the Safavid dynasty fall?
In 1722.
Who ruled over a rapidly disintegrating Persian society after the fall of the Safavid dynasty?
Mahmoud the Afghan.
When did Iran enter a period of decay and anarchy?
After the fall of the Safavid dynasty.
When did the Qajar dynasty ascend to power in Iran?
1794-1925.
When did Russian expansion into Iranian territory begin?
In the early eighteenth century.
Expansion into Iranian territory began in the late eighteenth century by which country?
Russia
What was the first serious military invasion in Iranian territory after the fall of the Safavid dynasty?
Czar Peter the Great's invasion with the occupation of Afghan tribes and Darband in Azerbaijan in 1723
What is the term used for the rivalry between Britain and Russia for the domination of Central Asia and surrounding territories?
The Great Game
Which Iranian leader ruled from Tehran and ceded Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and most of the north Caucasus region to the expanding Russian Empire?
Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834)
What did Britain annex in order to extend the buffer between its Indian territories and Russia's expanding empire?
Herat (1851) and incorporated it into Afghanistan
During Naser o Din Shah's reign, what did Iran introduce in its efforts to modernize?
A standing army, Western science, technology, and educational methods
What comprehensive effort was initiated by Amir Kabir in Iran's modernization process?
Building military industries, modern factories and schools, and initiating legal reforms
Who started efforts to build military industries, modern factories, and schools in Iran?
Amir Kabir
Who granted a 50-year monopoly on tobacco production to a British businessman?
Iran
Chapter 10 (Pg. 108 - 127)
Study
What challenges did the large rural population face in accessing basic goods and services in urban areas?
Limited access to basic goods and services, especially in the growing Tehran area, with a smaller minority experiencing more affluence, poor infrastructure planning, serious pollution, and increasing Western cultural influence.
What were some of the issues during Rafsanjani's second presidential term?
During Rafsanjani's second term, there was high inflation, accumulation of foreign debt, riots in major cities, and a campaign of assassinations targeting regime opponents both inside and outside the country.
Who succeeded Rafsanjani as the new president in May 1997?
Mohammad Khatami, a reform-minded ex-minister of Islamic guidance and culture, was elected as the new president in May 1997.
What was the result of the election in May 1997 and what was the impact on the Islamic Republic?
Reformist factions and independent activists formed a broad coalition known as the May 23 Reform Movement, leading to a shift toward a more pragmatic foreign policy and increased freedom in social and political life.
What happened in the October 1998 election to the Assembly of Experts, and what impact did it have on the forces of liberalization?
Conservative factions reaffirmed their control, stymying the forces of liberalization and leading to harassment of dissidents, journalists, intellectuals, and reformist cabinet ministers.
What were the three main currents of opposition to the Shah's regime?
Nationalists, socialist groups, and Islamist groups
What were the main goals of the Nationalists in opposing the Shah's regime?
Full sovereignty, control over the country's natural resources, especially the oil industry
What were the main goals of the socialist groups in opposing the Shah's regime?
Social justice and a classless society
What were the main goals of the Islamist groups in opposing the Shah's regime?
Establishment of cultural independence and Islamic government
What did the revolution bring in terms of political independence and control of natural resources?
Full political independence and firm control of natural resources and energy industry
What actions did the new Iranian government take in terms of international alliances and military presence?
Withdrew from every regional and international alliance, US military advisers and intelligence personnel left the country
What actions did the new regime take to purge the country of Western influence?
Banned or restricted bars, casinos, foreign cultural and educational institutes, and pro-Western publications
How did the new regime purged the country's institutions and organizations?
Purged the army, bureaucracy, professional organizations, trade associations, universities, colleges, and schools through cleansing committees (paksazi)
Who comprised the cleansing committees (paksazi) responsible for purging the country?
Young, inexperienced, recently converted revolutionaries with connections to the leading Ulama and their political allies
What were the social and legal changes imposed on women by the new regime?
Forced to cover their heads except for their faces and observe state-imposed codes of decent dressing
What were the consequences of the Islamization drive and the chaotic situation following the fall of the Shah's regime?
Widespread social discontent, violation of fundamental civil and political rights on a large scale
What were the main social bases of support for various radical opposition groups in Iran?
The modern middle class and the educated strata of Iranian society
What was the impact of the drive toward cultural authenticity on the modern middle class and educated strata?
Created widespread discontent and became the main social bases of support for various radical opposition groups
What was the state of social relations among Iranians after the fall of the dictatorship and its foreign supporters?
Various ideological persuasions had become each other's enemies
What were the main social bases of support for various radical opposition groups in Iran?
The middle class and the educated strata of Iranian society.
What actions were taken by the Revolutionary Guards and some regular army units in Iranian Kurdish provinces?
They fought a mini civil war against several Kurdish and leftist groups.
What armed campaign did the leftist MEK Islamic group start in June 1981?
They started a massive armed campaign of assassinations and bombings in an effort to reverse the clerical victory.
What were the consequences of the MEK's terrorist campaign in June through September 1981?
The campaign resulted in the deaths of hundreds of members of Parliament, the cabinet, and the IRP. Both the president and the prime minister died in one MEK terror bombing.
What were the two factions that the regime developed into after the war with Iraq ended?
The Islamic left and the conservative rightist faction.
Which opposition party did not go underground or leave Iran after 1981?
The Freedom Movement of Mehdi Bazargan.
What group was allowed to publish its newspaper Mizan the Scale and hold regular meetings in the early 1980s?
MEK (Mujahedin-e Khalq)
What nationalist religious coalition was formed in the late 1980s and retained a critical voice inside Iran?
Freedom Movement members, religious intellectuals, student activists, and other former anti-shah activists formed a nationalist religious coalition.
What did the exiled secular parties of the left and smaller nationalist groups form in the early 2000s?
They formed an umbrella organization called the Union of Nationalist Republicans.
Where did the MEK move to in 1983 and what did they do there?
The MEK moved to Iraq in 1983, set up guerrilla camps close to the Iranian border, and formed a military alliance with Saddam Hussein.
When was the MEK added to the US State Department's list of terrorist organizations, and when were they removed from the list?
The MEK was added to the US State Department's list of terrorist organizations in the mid-1990s, but removed from the list in 2012.
Chapter 10 (Pg. 128 - End of chapter)
Study
What was the main purpose of the international and regional alliance formed during the Iran-Iraq war?
To support the regime of Saddam Hussein against Iranian offensives and prevent the emergence of a definitive winner in the war.
What did the US government provide to Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war to prevent an Iranian victory?
Billions of dollars of credit, military intelligence, military advice, and closely monitored third country arms sales to make sure that Iraq had the military weaponry required.
Why was Iraq removed from the US State Department's list of states supporting international terrorism in February 1982?
To provide support to Iraq against Iranian attacks and to supply military intelligence and hardware to Hussein's regime.
What did Iraq start using in 1983 against Iranian troops and its own Kurdish population during the war?
Chemical weapons.
What did the United States do when Iran took the issue of Iraq's use of chemical weapons to the UN Security Council in 1984?
Used its influence to prevent the matter from going any further, despite having received information confirming Iraqi use of chemical weapons.
Date of George Shultz's memorandum
November 1, 1983
Confirmation of Iraqi use of chemical weapons
Recent additional information confirmed Iraqi use of chemical weapons
Iraq's acquisition of chemical weapons production capacity
Iraq acquired CW production capacity primarily from Western firms, possibly including a U.S. foreign subsidiary
Reagan's envoy to Baghdad
Donald Rumsfeld, CEO of GD Searl, visited Baghdad as a special envoy of President Reagan and met with Saddam Hussein and other top Iraqi officials
Agreements between Rumsfeld and Iraqi Foreign Minister
Agreements included shared common interests, such as peace in the Gulf, keeping Syria and Iran off balance and less influential, and promoting Egypt's reintegration into the Arab world
Policy of mutual destruction of Iran and Iraq
The policy of no winner, the prolonged mutual destruction of Iran and Iraq, was pursued in various ways
Israeli business involvement in selling to both sides
Substantial quantities of Israeli goods transited Turkey for both Islamic belligerents according to a document
Israel's conclusion about Iranian and Iraqi threat
By 1984, Israel concluded that Iran was more dangerous than Iraq to its existence due to growing Iranian influence and presence in Lebanon
Secret offer of Israeli assistance to Iraq
The United States agreed to deliver a secret offer of Israeli assistance to Iraq, but the Iraqi side refused to accept the secret Israeli letter
CIA's delivery of battlefield intelligence to Saddam
Richard Sale reported that the CIA regularly sent a team to Saddam to deliver battlefield intelligence obtained from Saudi AWACS
What secret offer of Israeli assistance to Iraq was refused by the Iraqi side?
The United States agreed to deliver a secret offer of Israeli assistance to Iraq, but the Iraqi side refused to accept the secret Israeli letter.
What kind of intelligence did the CIA regularly send to Saddam to aid the effectiveness of Iraq's armed forces?
The CIA regularly sent a team to Saddam to deliver battlefield intelligence obtained from Saudi AWACS surveillance aircraft to aid the effectiveness of Iraq's armed forces.
What document did a former official sign off on that shared US satellite intelligence with both Iraq and Iran?
A former official signed off on a document that shared US satellite intelligence with both Iraq and Iran in an attempt to produce a military stalemate.
What controversial action did the United States take when Kuwaiti ships supplying Iraq with fuel and other commodities became targets of Iranian attacks?
When Kuwaiti ships supplying Iraq with fuel and other commodities became targets of Iranian attacks, the Americans not only provided military escorts but hoisted US flags on Kuwaiti and Iraqi oil tankers.
In 1987, what did US forces do when the confrontation was at its peak in the Gulf?
In 1987, US forces captured and sank an Iranian mine layer, US ships bombarded an Iranian oil platform, and a US missile hit a civilian Iran Air jet carrying more than 200 passengers killing everyone on board.
What action did the United States take in the hope of securing the release of American captives held by Shiite militias in Lebanon?
The United States secretly smuggled some military equipment to Iran in the hope that Iran might be able to secure the release of American captives held by Shiite militias in Lebanon.
What was the aim of the dual containment policy during Clinton's administration?
The aim of the dual containment policy during Clinton's administration was to isolate Iran economically and politically.
What legislation did the House of Representatives pass in December 1995 regarding a US-led action against Iran?
In December 1995, the House of Representatives passed legislation providing for a US-led multilateral boycott of Iran.
What covert operation did Newt Gingrich announce in response to demands for even tougher action against Iran?
Newt Gingrich, the speaker of the House, announced that the CIA should mount an $18 million covert operation to overthrow the Iranian government.
What fund did the Majlis announce in response to the demands for tougher action against Iran?
In response to the demands for tougher action against Iran, the Majlis announced a $20 million fund to combat the activities of the Great Satan.
What did the House announce in response to the 18 million covert operation to overthrow the Iranian government by CIA?
In January 1996, the Majlis announced a 20 million fund to combat the activities of the Great Satan (referring to the United States).
How did Iran respond to the negative rhetoric intensified by George W. Bush against Iran in 2001?
Iran refrained from any action that the United States could construe as a provocation due to the considerable US military presence in the Gulf.
What label did the Bush administration place on Iran in 2001 as part of the Axis of Evil alongside Iraq and North Korea?
Iran was labeled as a member of the Axis of Evil alongside Iraq and North Korea by the Bush administration.
What terrorist organizations did the Bush administration accuse Iran of supporting?
The Bush administration repeatedly accused Iran of supporting terrorist organizations, including Hezbollah.
Which Palestinian organization did Iran support in an effort to resist the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory?
Iran supported Hamas in an effort to resist the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory.
