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NCM111 LEC
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NCM111 LEC
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What are hypotheses, and how are they related to theories and reality testing?
Hypotheses are tentative statements that propose a possible explanation for a phenomenon or event. They are based on theories and are tested with reality.
What types of studies typically require hypotheses, and how do they differ from qualitative studies?
Quantitative studies, experimental studies, and some descriptive studies require hypotheses to explain the value and meaning of a phenomenon. In contrast, qualitative studies are guided by research questions instead of hypotheses.
What should researchers consider before formulating a hypothesis, and how does it differ from a research problem?
Researchers should conduct a review of the literature and establish a theoretical framework before formulating a hypothesis. The hypothesis is not the research problem but is subjected to empirical testing through data collection and analysis.
What types of research problems necessitate hypotheses for in-depth solutions?
Research problems that are experimental, causal, comparative, correlational, or normative in nature require hypotheses for their in-depth solutions.
What are the key characteristics of a well-formulated hypothesis?
A well-formulated hypothesis should possess the following characteristics: 1. Testability - it should be observable, quantifiable, and capable of analysis. 2. Clarity - it should be clear and concise. 3. Verifiability - it should state an anticipated relationship. 4. Set the limits of the study. 5. Can be accepted or rejected. 6. Formulated in simple and understandable terms. 7. Corresponds to existing knowledge. 8. Logical and justifiable, consistent with a body of knowledge. 9. Based on the research problem.
In what tense and with what elements should a hypothesis be stated?
A hypothesis should be stated in the declarative form and in the present tense. It should indicate the population, the independent variable, dependent variable, and the anticipated relationship between them.
When is a hypothesis not testable, and what are the reasons for its non-testability?
A hypothesis is not testable when: - Variables are not observable and quantifiable. - Variables cannot be subjected to factual testing and analysis. - Variables do not state any predicted relationship. - It lacks phrases such as "more than," "less than," "greater than," "different from," "related to," or something similar, making it non-testable.
What are the two main categories of hypotheses, and how do they differ?
The two main categories of hypotheses are simple and complex. Simple hypotheses involve one independent and one dependent variable, while complex hypotheses can have two independent variables and one dependent variable or one independent variable and two dependent variables.
What is the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses?
Directional hypotheses specify clear characteristics of the variables and predict the direction of the relationship between them. Non-directional hypotheses do not specify the direction of the relationship and leave it open-ended.
What are the two types of hypotheses based on their nature?
The two types of hypotheses based on their nature are research or alternative hypotheses and statistical or null hypotheses.
How can you distinguish between a research (alternative) hypothesis and a statistical (null) hypothesis?
A research (alternative) hypothesis suggests that there is a significant relationship between variables, while a statistical (null) hypothesis suggests that there is no significant relationship between variables.
What are the advantages of using a null hypothesis in scientific studies?
The advantages of using a null hypothesis in scientific studies include that it is scientific, reflects the impartiality of the researcher, and minimizes research bias.
What role does testing the hypothesis play in empirical investigation?
Testing the hypothesis is the heart of the empirical investigation, as it determines the solution to the research problem.
What are assumptions in the context of research, and how are they classified?
Assumptions in research are statements considered true, even if not scientifically proven. They are classified into three types: universal assumptions (beliefs taken as true by most people), study assumptions (starting points for the study), and theory or research-based assumptions (derived from previous research in a field of study).
What is the research framework, and how does it support the development of a research question?
The research framework is the structure of an idea or concept and how it is put together, forming an argument that supports the rationale for developing the research question. It helps provide a structure for the research study and guides the development of hypotheses and research questions.
What is the rationale for developing a conceptual or theoretical framework in research?
The rationale for developing a conceptual or theoretical framework in research is to justify the investigation, provide reasons for searching for new data, and establish the relationship among variables by citing the theories on which the study is based.
What is a conceptual framework, and what does it consist of?
A conceptual framework is a structure of concepts grouped together to form a map for the study. It explains the relationship of variables based on literature and research. It consists of concepts that help clarify the overall relationship of the research variables by defining how the concepts are related.
How is a conceptual framework different from a theoretical framework?
A conceptual framework is a representation of the expected relationship between variables based on literature and research, while a theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts existing in the literature, serving as a ready-made map for the study. Theoretical frameworks guide the selection of variables to measure and the conclusions to be drawn.
What is the nature of theory, and how does it relate to research?
Theories are always speculative and are never proven. They provide descriptions and explanations of phenomena and can be further developed, revised, or discarded if not supported by empirical findings. Theories are general principles that systematically explain the relationship among given phenomena for the purpose of explaining, predicting, and controlling those phenomena.
What components make up a theory, and how do they guide research?
A theory consists of concepts and propositions, which are ideas and relationships between concepts. It also includes a conceptual paradigm. These interrelated concepts form a framework that guides and directs researchers in their investigations.
What is the reinforcement theory of motivation, and who proposed it?
The reinforcement theory of motivation, proposed by BF Skinner, states that an individual's behavior is a function of its consequences.
What are the key assumptions of the reinforcement theory of motivation?
The assumptions of the reinforcement theory of motivation include: - Behavior is based on the 'law of effect.' - Behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated. - Behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
What are Thorndike's laws of exercise, and what are their assumptions?
Thorndike's laws of exercise include: - Law of use: The more often an association is used, the stronger it becomes. - Law of disuse: The longer an association is unused, the weaker it becomes.
What is a paradigm, and how does it relate to one's belief system and view of reality?
A paradigm is an overall belief system that makes sense of reality and forms the basis of knowledge. It influences how an individual views reality and interprets the world.
What is a conceptual paradigm, and how does it relate to research?
A conceptual paradigm is a visual diagram that presents and interprets the underlying theory, principles, and concepts of research. It represents the structure and parts of a theory and helps researchers understand the relationships between variables before empirical investigation.
How do research designs influence the quality of a study, and which methodological decision has the most impact on the study's quality?
Research designs strongly influence the quality of evidence a study yields. The choice of research design has more impact on the quality of the study than any other methodological decision.
What is mixed methods research, and what are some common uses of mixed methods?
Mixed methods research combines qualitative and quantitative research approaches to explore a research problem. It can be used to explain and interpret phenomena, develop and test new instruments, complement a theoretical perspective, address questions at different levels, and overcome the weaknesses of a single design.
What are some strengths and weaknesses of mixed methods research?
Some strengths of mixed methods research include its ability to describe and report findings, handle unexpected results, generalize qualitative data to some extent, design and validate instruments, and position research in a transformative framework. Some weaknesses include the time required, discrepancies between different types of data, unequal evidence generation, difficulty in deciding when to proceed in sequential designs, and limited guidance on transformative methods.
What are the four key decisions for mixed method designs, as outlined by Creswell?
1. What is the implementation sequence of data collection? 2. What method takes priority during data collection and analysis? 3. What does the integration stage of finding involve? 4. Will a theoretical perspective be used?
What are the six mixed methods design strategies, according to Creswell, and what are their purposes?
1. Sequential Explanatory: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study. 2. Sequential Exploratory: To explore a phenomenon or develop and test a new instrument. 3. Sequential Transformative: To employ methods that best serve a theoretical perspective. 4. Concurrent Triangulation: To confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study using two or more methods. 5. Concurrent Nested: To address different questions or seek information from different levels. 6. Concurrent Transformative: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.
