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Adaptation, Variation, and Change
Study
What is adaptation?
Adaptation is the process by which organisms cope with environmental forces and stresses.
What is human adaptation?
Human adaptation involves interaction between culture and biology.
Give an example of human adaptation.
Human adaptation to high altitudes uses both cultural and biological means.
What are the different means of human adaptation to high altitudes?
Technological adaptation (cultural), genetic adaptation (biological), long-term physiological adaptation (biological), and short-term physiological adaptation (biological).
How have cultural means of adaptation changed over time?
Social and cultural means of adaptation have become increasingly important for human groups.
What is the impact of globalization on cultural adaptation?
Today's global economy and means of communication link all people in the modern world system, presenting new challenges for anthropology.
What is the biocultural perspective?
The biocultural perspective recognizes that cultural forces constantly mold human biology.
How does cultural standards of attractiveness influence sports participation?
Cultural standards of attractiveness and propriety influence participation and achievement in sports.
What are the four main subdisciplines of anthropology in North America?
Sociocultural anthropology, Anthropological archaeology, Biological anthropology, Linguistic anthropology
What does sociocultural anthropology focus on?
Societies of the present and recent past
What does anthropological archaeology study?
Lifeways of ancient and more recent societies through analysis of material remains
What does biological anthropology study?
Human biological variation through time and across geographic space
What does linguistic anthropology examine?
Language in its social and cultural contexts
What was the focus of early American anthropologists?
Exploring the origins and diversity of Native American groups, studying their customs, social life, language, and physical traits
What is the goal of the four subdisciplines of anthropology?
To explore variation in time and space to improve understanding of human biology, society, and culture
What is cultural anthropology?
The combination of ethnography and ethnology to study human societies and cultures
What does ethnography consist of?
Fieldwork in a particular cultural setting
What do anthropologists do during ethnographic fieldwork?
Collect data, organize, analyze, and interpret to produce an account of a particular community, society, or culture
What does anthropology focus on compared to other social sciences?
Local (often poor and powerless) people
What does ethnography study?
The study of cultures, social interactions, and behaviors of a particular group of people
What is the goal of ethnography?
To understand the cultural practices and experiences of a specific group of people
What does ethnology do with ethnographic data?
Compares and analyzes ethnographic data to make generalizations about society and culture
What does archaeology study?
Human behavior and cultural patterns through material remains
What are examples of material remains studied by archaeologists?
Artifacts, garbage, burials, grains, and structures
How do archaeologists reconstruct behavior patterns?
Through excavation and examining changes over time in a given area
What does biological anthropology focus on?
The biological and evolutionary aspects of humans, including genetics, primatology, and human evolution
What is the study of interrelations among living things in an environment called?
Ecology
What is the study of human evolution as revealed by the fossil record called?
Paleoanthropology
What is the study of human genetics called?
Human genetics
What is the study of human growth and development called?
Human growth and development
Untitled Deck
Study
What distinguishes culture from mere symbol usage?
Humans have elaborated cultural abilities such as learning, communication, and symbol processing.
How does culture unify people?
The social transmission of culture provides people with common experiences.
How does culture affect human nature?
Cultural habits, perceptions, and inventions mold human nature in various ways.
What does the anthropological concept of culture encompass?
The anthropological concept of culture includes all aspects of human social life.
How does cultural change impact a culture?
Changes in one dimension of culture often generate changes in other dimensions.
What are core values in a culture?
Core values are ideas, attitudes, symbols, and judgments that integrate and distinguish a particular culture.
How do humans adapt and succeed?
Culture is the main instrument of human adaptability and success.
What needs do people fulfill using culture?
People use culture to fulfill their basic biological needs as well as psychological and emotional needs.
Can certain cultural traits be maladaptive?
Yes, sometimes cultural traits can harm the environment and threaten a group's long-term survival.
How far back does the evolutionary basis of culture extend?
The human capacity for culture has an evolutionary basis that extends back around 3 million years.
What are some similarities between humans and other primates?
Anatomy, brain structure, genetics, and biochemistry
Which primates are humans most closely related to?
Chimpanzees and gorillas
What are some human traits that reflect our tree-dwelling ancestors?
Grasping, manual dexterity, opposable thumbs, depth and color vision, a large brain, parental investment, sociality, and cooperation
Why are manual dexterity and depth perception important for humans?
Manipulating objects and making tools
How does the brain size of primates compare to other mammals?
Primates have a larger brain size relative to body size, especially the outer layer concerned with memory and learning
What is a common form of toolmaking observed in chimpanzees?
Termiting, where chimps make tools to probe termite hills
What is a characteristic that differentiates humans from other primates?
Cooperation and sharing are more characteristic of humans
How do human females differ in reproduction compared to other primates?
They lack a visible estrus cycle and have concealed ovulation, leading to more durable pair bonds and marriage
What is the distinction between cultural universals, cultural generalities, and cultural particularities studied by anthropologists?
Cultural universals are found in every culture, cultural generalities are common to several but not all human groups, and cultural particularities are unique to certain cultural traditions
What are some biologically based universals in humans?
A long period of infant dependency, year-round sexuality, and a complex brain enabling the use of symbols, languages, and tools.
What are social universals?
Life in groups and families of some kind.
What are cultural generalities?
Patterns or practices that occur in certain times and places, but not in all cultures.
Give an example of a cultural generality.
The nuclear family, which is present in many but not all societies.
What are cultural particularities?
Practices that are unique to a single place, culture, or society.
How do individuals interact with culture?
They actively and creatively use culture, can avoid, manipulate, subvert, and change cultural rules and patterns.
How is culture contested?
Symbols may have different meanings to different individuals and groups within the same culture.
What is the difference between ideal culture and real culture?
Ideal culture refers to the normative descriptions of a culture given by its people, while real culture refers to behavior observed by anthropologists.
What are the public and individual dimensions of culture?
Culture is described as having interrelated public and individual dimensions.
How do contemporary anthropologists view culture?
They view culture as a process in action, practice, and resistance, rather than a static entity transmitted across generations.
What is agency?
Agency refers to the actions individuals take, both alone and in groups, in forming and transforming culture.
Introduction to Applied Anthropology
Study
What is the main difference between applied anthropology and academic anthropology?
Applied anthropology involves solving contemporary problems, while academic anthropology focuses on theoretical aspects.
What is the ethnographic method used in applied anthropology?
The ethnographic method involves firsthand study and participant observation.
What is the role of anthropological theory in applied anthropology?
Anthropological theory aids practice, and application fuels theory.
What were some problematic early applications of anthropology?
Early applications of anthropology aided subjugation and control by militarily stronger societies.
How do applied anthropologists view their work today?
Applied anthropologists see their work as a helping profession designed to assist local people.
When did applied anthropology begin to grow?
In the 1970s and 1980s.
What encouraged anthropologists to consider the wider social value of their research?
The shift toward application and various social and historical events of the era.
Besides poverty, who do applied anthropologists engage with?
Clients who are neither poor nor powerless.
What are some goals of applied anthropologists with commercial clients?
Performing market research.
What ethical problems do contemporary anthropologists often face?
Their inability to set or influence policy and the difficulty of criticizing programs they have participated in.
What do anthropologists endeavor to study, understand, and respect?
Cultural values.
What are some proper roles for applied anthropologists?
Identifying needs for change, working with local people to design culturally appropriate change, and protecting local people from harmful policies and projects.
What is the branch of applied anthropology that focuses on social issues in economic development?
Development anthropology.
What ethical dilemmas do development anthropologists face?
When planners' interests do not coincide with the best interests of the community.
What is the goal of development projects in terms of equity?
Increased equity and a more even distribution of wealth.
What is the negative impact of projects that widen the gap between the 'haves' and 'have nots'?
Negative equity impact.
How can credit-granting agencies avoid negative equity impact?
By not only investing in established businesspeople.
What is overinnovation in development projects?
Projects that require major changes on behalf of the target community.
What is underdifferentiation in development projects?
The tendency to overlook cultural diversity and view all 'less developed' countries as alike.
What are the best models for economic development?
Indigenous models
What is the focus of economic development in Madagascar?
Local forms of social organization
What do successful development policies promote?
Change while preserving local systems and relations
What is anthropology and education?
The study of students in the context of their family, peers, and enculturation
How has anthropological research helped in education?
By facilitating the accommodation of linguistic and cultural differences in classroom settings
What is urban anthropology?
The cross-cultural and ethnographic study of urbanization and life in cities
What are some topics in urban anthropology?
Immigration, ethnicity, poverty, class, and violence
What does medical anthropology study?
Disease, health problems, and health care systems
What is the difference between disease and illness?
Disease is a scientifically identified health threat, while illness is a condition perceived or felt by an individual.
How do the health conditions of indigenous populations compare to nonindigenous populations?
The health conditions of indigenous populations are uniformly low compared to nonindigenous populations.
What are the three disease-theory systems used to identify, classify, and explain illness?
Personalistic, naturalistic, and emotionalistic disease theories.
Understanding Ourselves and Research Methods
Study
What is the evolutionary reason for humans needing assistance during childbirth?
Bipedalism and increased cranial capacity
What do archaeologists tend to study?
Material culture
What do biological anthropologists tend to study?
Biological remains
Which scientific field studies ancient life through the fossil record?
Paleontology
What is palynology?
The study of ancient plants through pollen samples
What do bioarchaeologists examine?
Human remains to reconstruct physical traits, health status, and diet
What can phytoliths reveal about a site?
Which plants were present even when no other plant remains survive
What do starch grains preserve well in?
Humid, tropical locations where other organic remains usually decay
What is remote sensing?
The use of aerial and satellite images to locate sites on the ground
What role does remote sensing play in archaeology?
Locating invisible archaeological features
How did remote sensing help archaeologists in Costa Rica?
Discovering ancient footpaths hidden by volcanic ash and vegetation
What is LiDAR?
A remote sensing technique using lasers to map 3D surfaces
What has LiDAR enabled scientists to map in Guatemala?
Over 800 square miles of the Maya Biosphere Reserve
What are fossils?
Remains, traces, or impressions of ancient life forms
What additional materials are used in dating techniques?
Pollen and soil samples, rock samples, and sediments
What is the purpose of a systematic survey in archaeology?
Gathering information on settlement patterns
Why are settlement patterns important in archaeology?
To make inferences about prehistoric communities and their population estimates
What is the purpose of excavation in archaeology?
To collect fine-grained data at a specific site
What is the principle of superposition?
The oldest layer is on the bottom and each layer above is younger
Why are most sites selected for excavation?
To address specific research questions
What is cultural resource management (CRM) concerned with?
Excavating sites threatened by modern development
What is the purpose of creating a grid at a site before excavation?
To record the exact location of artifacts, fossils, or features found at the site
What are the two methods of digging in excavation?
Arbitrary levels or following natural stratigraphy
What is the process used by archaeologists to recover materials from an excavation?
Passing excavated soil through screens
What technique is used to recover carbonized and very small materials like fish bones and seeds?
Flotation
What do experimental archaeologists try to replicate?
Ancient techniques and processes like toolmaking
What type of archaeology uses written records to locate and excavate postcontact sites in North and South America?
Colonial archaeology
Which civilizations do classical archaeologists study?
Greece, Rome, and Egypt
What is underwater archaeology?
Investigating submerged sites, often shipwrecks
What is cultural resource management and contract archaeology?
Applying archaeological techniques to manage threatened sites
Understanding Ourselves and Evolution
Study
What are some aspects of human physiology that are more changeable?
Genes do determine some things, but other aspects of human physiology are more plastic.
What is the theory of evolution?
The theory of evolution is the central organizing principle of modern biology.
What was the commonly accepted explanation for the origin of species before Darwin?
Creationism, the belief that biological similarities and differences originated at Creation and are immutable.
What is catastrophism?
Catastrophism is a modified version of creationism that suggests worldwide disasters wiped out ancient species and new divine events created species.
What is transformism?
Transformism, also known as evolution, is the alternative to creationism and catastrophism.
What is uniformitarianism?
Uniformitarianism is the belief that natural forces at work today also explain past events and current geological structures are the result of long-term natural forces.
What did Darwin argue about all life forms?
They are related and the number of species has increased over time.
What is natural selection?
The principal mechanism that explains changes in life forms.
What is evolution?
Both a theory and a fact. It is a central organizing principle of modern biology and anthropology.
What is a theory?
A set of logically connected ideas formulated to explain something.
What did Charles Darwin contribute regarding evolution?
A theory of evolution through natural selection, explaining how evolution occurred.
What is natural selection?
The gradual process by which forms best suited to survive and reproduce in a particular environment do so in greater numbers.
What is the concept of natural selection?
Organisms that fit better within their environmental niche will reproduce more frequently.
What has natural selection produced?
The diverse plants and animals found in the world today.
What does the science of genetics aim to explain?
The inheritance of traits and the variation and diversity of organisms.
What provides the variety on which natural selection operates?
Biochemical changes (mutations) in DNA
Who conducted experiments on pea plants to study hereditary traits?
Gregor Mendel
What did Mendel determine about heredity?
It is determined by discrete particles or units
What are the two basic forms of traits identified by Mendel?
Dominant and recessive
What determines the nature of a particular trait?
Genes on chromosomes
What is responsible for much of the variety upon which natural selection operates?
Independent assortment and recombination of traits
What produces variety through genetic recombination?
Mendel's experiments
What are changes in the DNA molecule called?
Mutations
What are the building blocks of genes and chromosomes?
DNA
What is the process by which DNA copies itself?
DNA replication
What is the molecule that carries DNA's message from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?
RNA
What is the term for the formation of two identical cells from one cell?
Mitosis
What is the term for the formation of four cells with half the genetic material from one cell?
Meiosis
What is the process by which paired chromosomes exchange segments of DNA?
Crossing over
What is population genetics?
The study of genetic characteristics of populations
Understanding Human Biological Diversity
Study
What does human biological diversity encompass?
Visible traits like skin or eye color, as well as unseen traits like disease resistance or food digestion abilities
Why is it important to understand human biological differences?
To understand how they came to be and their implications
Give an example of how understanding human biological diversity can save lives.
Knowledge of the correlation between blood type and adverse reactions to the smallpox vaccine
How has migration contributed to biological diversity in contemporary North America?
Migration has resulted in a rich diversity of human populations
What are the two main approaches to studying human biological diversity?
Racial classification and the explanatory approach
What is the definition of a race in biological terms?
A geographically isolated subdivision of a species that does not reproduce with individuals from other subspecies due to geographic isolation
Do humans have distinct races according to biological evidence?
No, human populations have not been isolated enough to develop into discrete groups
Is race a biological or cultural category?
Race is a cultural category perceived and perpetuated in societies, not a biological reality
What is racism?
Discrimination against a group perceived to be biologically different
Are biological differences between human populations real?
Yes, they are real, important, and apparent
What are gradual shifts in gene frequencies between neighboring human populations called?
Clines
What is the purpose of the concept of race in biology?
To reflect shared genetic ancestry and adaptations
What are racial categories based on?
Phenotypes
What is the problem with classifying people by skin color?
Many populations do not fit neatly into any one race
Do traits such as skin color, stature, skull form, and facial features go together as a unit?
No
What suggests that all humans share a common ancestor?
Genetic similarities
Where is the site of human origins?
Africa
What do researchers use to trace the dispersion of humans across the globe?
Genetic haplogroups
Do long-term genetic markers neatly correlate with phenotypic traits?
No
What is the key message of the AAA RACE education program?
Race is a recent human invention, about culture not biology, embedded in institutions and everyday life.
According to the AAA, what are the factors that contribute to inequalities among 'racial' groups?
Social, economic, educational, and political circumstances.
What role does natural selection play in explaining human skin color?
Natural selection determines which forms are most fit to survive and reproduce in a given environment.
What is the primary determinant of human skin color?
The amount of melanin in the skin.
Where were the world's darkest-skinned populations historically located?
Closest to the tropics.
Why is light skin selected against in the tropics?
It burns more easily, leading to a greater likelihood of infection and disease.
How does sunburn affect the body's ability to withstand heat?
It reduces the skin's ability to sweat and regulate temperature.
Why is light skin more susceptible to skin cancer than dark skin?
Light skin has less natural protection against harmful UV radiation.
How does sunlight affect vitamin D formation?
It indicates how dark skin might have been selected for in tropical environments against rickets.
What does the high rate of rickets and osteoporosis among people from Pakistan and India in northern areas of the UK demonstrate?
Dark skin becomes a biological disadvantage in low-sunlight environments.
Why do Eskimos (Inuit) have darker skin despite living in northern areas?
They can survive in northern areas due to their diets rich in vitamin D from seafood, but suffer from deficiency when not consuming their traditional diet.
Untitled Deck
Study
What physical characteristics distinguished ancient people from modern humans?
Heavier brows, smaller chins, wider and flatter faces
Where was the Misliya Cave located?
Israel
When was the earliest Homo sapiens jawbone found in Israel dated to?
194,000-177,000 B.P.
What does the Misliya Cave discovery suggest about the migration of modern humans?
Some modern humans ventured out of Africa earlier than the migration that gave rise to all living humans
When was the Apidima 1 skull in Greece dated to?
210,000 B.P.
When was the Apidima 2 skull in Greece (Neandertal) dated to?
170,000 B.P.
Where were other early Homo sapiens remains found?
Border Cave in South Africa and Israel
What do the fossil remains from Border Cave indicate about the people who lived there?
They had thin-boned modern features, including a modern brow ridge and chin
When were the AMH skulls found at Skhūl dated to?
100,000 B.P.
When were the modern-shaped skulls found at Qafzeh dated to?
92,000 B.P.
What are early Homo sapiens in western Europe often called?
Cro Magnons
What do genetic studies suggest about the origin and spread of AMHs?
AMHs arose in Africa and then spread to the rest of the world
What type of DNA did researchers focus on in the genetic studies?
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
How did researchers create an evolutionary tree?
By counting and comparing mutations in mtDNA in tissue samples
Where did the evolutionary tree of humans start?
In Africa
Who is the common ancestor of all modern humans?
Mitochondrial Eve
What did a study of 787 DNA samples confirm?
All non-Africans trace their ancestry to a single dispersal out of Africa
Where is the Manot Cave and what does it suggest?
It is in Israel and suggests it was a corridor for human migration out of Africa
Did Neandertals and AMHs coexist in the Middle East?
Yes, they may have coexisted for thousands of years
What is the oldest known evidence of AMHs in Europe?
A jawbone from England and baby teeth from Italy
When did hominin ancestors originate in Africa?
Around 6 million years ago
When did hominins start making crude stone tools?
By 3.3 million years ago
When did hominins spread to Asia and Europe?
By 1.8 million years ago
When did anatomically modern humans (AMHs) evolve from ancestors that remained in Africa?
As early as 300,000 years ago
When did behavioral modernity of AMHs emerge?
There is disagreement among scientists
What is the traditional view of the 'creative explosion' in behavioral modernity?
It occurred in Europe around 45,000 years ago
What is the alternative view of the development of behavioral modernity?
It was a gradual development in Africa from 300,000 to 30,000 years ago
How might cultural advances have facilitated the spread of AMHs out of Africa?
By providing an advantage for survival and communication
According to Randall White, where did early personal adornment show a creative capacity among AMHs?
Africa and the Middle East
What gave AMHs an advantage over Neandertals?
Symbolic thought and cultural advances
Understanding Ourselves and Broad-Spectrum Economies
Study
When did domestication occur in the Old World and the Americas?
11,000 years ago
What prevented the New World wheel from being used for transportation?
Lack of beasts of burden
What is the broad-spectrum revolution?
A period when a wider range of plant and animal life was hunted and gathered
What is an example of Mesolithic technology?
Microliths
What was the shift in focus during the European Mesolithic?
From herd game hunting to more varied and specialized activities
When did the domestication of dogs occur?
Around 33,000 and 15,000 years ago
What were the Jomon people known for in Asia?
Hunting, gathering, and foraging
What were some animals hunted by the Jomon people?
Deer, pigs, bears, and antelope
What is the Neolithic Revolution?
The transition from foraging to farming and herding
What is the significance of pottery in early human history?
It was used for cooking, storing food, and other purposes
Where is the oldest known pottery from?
Jiangxi Province in southern China
What were ancient clay vessels used for?
Some of them were used as baby bottles
What were some of the main characteristics of Neolithic cultures?
Cultivation dependence, settled life, and the use of ceramic vessels
What were the stages proposed by Flannery in the transition to farming?
Seminomadic hunting and gathering, early dry farming, and domestication of goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs.
Where did the technology of farming take root?
Along the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
What were the environmental zones in the Middle East?
High plateau, hilly flanks, piedmont steppe, and alluvial desert.
How did foragers exploit the contrasting environmental zones?
They followed game from zone to zone and harvested wild grains as they moved.
What is an example of early sedentism in the Middle East?
The Natufian culture, which was based on broad-spectrum foraging.
Where is the earliest known evidence of bread making?
Shubayqa 1 in Jordan.
Who excavated the circular buildings at Shubayqa 1?
A team from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
What did bread makers use to make flour?
Wild barley, wheat, oat, and tubers from an aquatic plant
Where did food production actually begin?
In marginal areas, such as the piedmont steppe
Why was there greater incentive for experimentation where wild foods were sparsely available?
Because of the scarcity of wild foods
What caused a drying trend around 11,000 B.P.?
Drying trend
Where did villages form during the drying trend?
Near permanent water sources
What changes did humans make to plants through domestication?
Selected seeds that were easier to harvest and prepare for eating
What makes domesticated plants different from wild plants?
Larger seeds, larger yield, and lost natural seed dispersal mechanisms
What changes did humans make to animals through domestication?
Selected smaller animals that were easier to control
How did ancient Middle Easterners convert wild animals into herd animals?
By selectively culling wild animal populations
According to Samuel Bowles and Jung-Kyoo Choi, when did private property co-evolve?
With the transition from foraging to food production
Understanding State Societies
Study
What are state societies characterized by?
Large differences in status, power, wealth, and privilege
What is the division of labor like in state societies?
Marked division of labor with specialists and ordinary citizens
What are some similarities between modern states and earlier forms of social organization?
Stratification, taxation, and hard work by ordinary citizens
What is a state?
A form of social and political organization with a formal, central government and social stratification
What is a chiefdom?
A precursor to states with hereditary leaders and a permanent political structure
What distinguishes chiefdoms from states?
Chiefdoms lack the sharp class divisions
When did the first states form in Mesopotamia?
Approximately 5500 B.P.
When did the first states form in Mesoamerica?
Approximately 3000 years later
What are primary states?
States that emerged from competition among chiefdoms
Which regions saw the development of primary states?
Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley, northern China, Mesoamerica, and the Andes
What is one factor that contributed to the formation of states in arid areas?
Regulation of hydraulic economies
How did water control contribute to state formation?
Increased agricultural production and population growth
What role did regional trade play in the formation of states?
Control and regulation of key trade nodes
According to Robert Carneiro, what are the three key factors that interact to promote state formation?
Environmental circumscription, population increase, and warfare
What is environmental circumscription?
Physical or social limitations on expansion, emigration, or access to resources
What are two key aspects of state formation?
Changes in resource control and increasing regulatory concerns
What are the six attributes of states?
Control of territory, productive agricultural economies, central authority, social stratification, management by state machinery, and regulatory concerns
What geographical area does Mesopotamia refer to?
The area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is now southern Iraq and southwestern Iran
What were the earliest city-states in the Middle East?
Sumer (southern Iraq) and Elam (southwestern Iran)
What is the earliest known town in the Middle East?
Jericho
What was the main trade item at Çatalhöyük?
Obsidian
What were the dwellings like in Çatalhöyük?
Mud-brick dwellings with separate areas for secular and ritual activities
What were the wall paintings in the ritual spaces focused on?
Animals, danger, and death
What happened after two or three generations of burials in Çatalhöyük?
The dwelling was burned
Where is the earliest evidence for monumental architecture found?
Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey
Who built Göbekli Tepe?
Hunter-gatherers
What were the limestone pillars at Göbekli Tepe carved with?
Images of animals and mythical ancestral figures
What were Halafian pottery and Ubaid pottery associated with?
Halafian pottery was associated with a social hierarchy, and Ubaid pottery was associated with advanced chiefdoms and perhaps the earliest states
Where was Ubaid pottery first identified?
At the site of Tell al-Ubaid, located in the southern part of what is now Iraq
What artifacts have been found in the ancient settlements of northern Syria?
Dwellings with hearths and other artifacts
Anthropology and Ethnography
Study
What does anthropology encompass besides studying past civilizations?
The study of language and culture of contemporary peoples
What are the methods of anthropology applied to?
Almost every conceivable type of human group
Who was a famous cultural anthropologist?
Margaret Mead
What is the goal of ethnographers?
To understand the whole of a particular culture
What is culture shock?
An experience of unfamiliarity and discomfort upon arrival at a new field site
What is rapport?
A good, friendly working relationship based on personal contact
What is participant observation?
The researcher taking part in the activities being observed and trying to understand them
What is one method of data-gathering in ethnography?
Conversation, interviewing, and interview schedules
What does a survey provide in ethnographic research?
A census and basic village information
How does survey research in ethnography differ from research done by other social scientists?
It does not involve sampling and attempts to talk to the total population
What is the difference between an interview schedule and questionnaire procedures?
An interview schedule involves face-to-face conversations while questionnaire procedures are more impersonal
What is the purpose of an interview schedule in ethnographic research?
To gather comparable quantifiable information and identify patterns and exceptions
What is the genealogical method in ethnography?
A technique of diagramming kin connections for comparing kin-based societies
Who are key cultural consultants in ethnographic research?
Individuals knowledgeable about specific aspects of their culture who provide helpful information to ethnographers
What are life histories in ethnography?
Narratives of a person's life experiences recorded for further analysis
How can life histories be useful in ethnographic research?
They reveal how individuals perceive and contribute to changes, and illustrate the diversity within a community
What is problem-oriented ethnography?
An approach where ethnographers address a specific problem
What is problem-oriented research in anthropology?
It focuses on studying the impact of specific issues on a community or society.
What is longitudinal research?
It involves the long-term study of an area or population, based on repeated visits.
What is team research in anthropology?
It involves coordinated research by multiple ethnographers.
What does the emic approach in ethnography focus on?
It investigates the perspective of individuals within the culture being studied.
What is online ethnography?
It involves studying online environments such as gaming platforms.
How do ethnographers combine the emic and etic approaches?
They consider both the perspectives of individuals within the culture and outside observations in their research.
What is one way online ethnographers observe and describe in virtual worlds?
By observing and describing various forms of play, performance, creativity, and ritual
What do online ethnographers sometimes travel to observe in virtual worlds?
How real-world cultures influence participation
What techniques do virtual researchers employ?
Techniques similar to other ethnographers
What is the purpose of survey research in anthropology?
To complement traditional ethnographic techniques in studying large-scale societies
What does survey research involve?
Drawing a study group or sample, collecting data, and performing statistical analyses
How can social scientists make accurate inferences about a larger population?
By studying a properly selected, representative sample
What is a key difference between survey research and traditional ethnography?
Survey research is more impersonal and involves formal questionnaires
Understanding Ourselves: Flashcards
Study
What is the term for having different identities in different contexts?
Situational negotiation of social identity
How can individuals manipulate their identity using modern communications technology?
Selective self-revelation and influencing others' perceptions
What do members of an ethnic group share?
Beliefs, values, habits, customs, and norms
What are some cultural distinctions that define an ethnic group?
Language, religion, historical experience, geographic placement, kinship, and race
What does ethnicity mean?
Identification and sense of belonging to an ethnic group, leading to exclusion from other groups
What is the term for the various positions people occupy in society?
Status
Give an example of an ascribed status.
Age, race, and gender
Give an example of an achieved status.
Salesperson, convicted felon, and mother
Do individuals have control over ascribed or achieved statuses?
Little or no control over ascribed statuses, control over achieved statuses
How can individuals modify their gender status?
Transgender individuals can modify the gender status assigned at birth or in childhood
What is the term used for when members of an ethnic group change their ethnic identities?
Ethnic identity shifting
Why are minority groups called minority?
Because they occupy subordinate positions in a social hierarchy with less power and access to resources
What is the term for discrimination against a group assumed to have a biological basis?
Racism
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
Race is a cultural category while ethnicity is a biological reality
How are racial identities primarily acquired in the United States?
At birth through the rule of descent
What is the term for assigning social identity based on ancestry?
Hypodescent
What does hypodescent lead to in American society?
Unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige
Why has the U.S. Census Bureau been gathering data by race since 1790?
To track demographic information and population trends
Why have attempts to add a 'multiracial' category to the U.S. Census been opposed?
Concerns about impact on access to resources, jobs, and political representation
What does a significant increase in respondents choosing 'some other race' on the U.S. Census suggest?
Imprecision and dissatisfaction with existing categories
What term is used in the Canadian census instead of 'race'?
'Visible minorities'
What is the dominant racial ideology in Japan?
Description of the country as racially and ethnically homogeneous
What is the term used to describe the belief in Japan that a perceived racial difference justifies valuing one person less than another?
Intrinsic racism
Who is Naomi Osaka and why was her victory significant in Japan?
First Japanese-born tennis player to win a Grand Slam championship, daughter of a Haitian American father and Japanese mother
What term is applied to biracial people in Japan?
Hafu, derived from the English word 'half'
What is the stigmatized group in Japan that is treated as a different race despite being genetically and physically indistinguishable from the dominant population?
Burakumin
What are the residential neighborhoods called where the burakumin are segregated?
Buraku
What is the dominant Brazilian construction of race based on?
Relatively slight phenotypic differences
How is the Brazilian construction of race different from the US and Japan?
It is more flexible and allows for individuals to have multiple race classifications
What is the distinction between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype refers to hereditary makeup, while phenotype refers to expressed physical characteristics
Gender and Sexuality
Study
What are gender roles?
The tasks and activities that a culture assigns based on gender.
What are gender stereotypes?
Oversimplified, strongly held views about the characteristics of males and females.
What is gender stratification?
An unequal distribution of rewards between men and women, reflecting their different positions in a social hierarchy.
What is sexual dimorphism?
Marked differences in male and female biology, such as height, weight, strength, and longevity.
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex refers to biological differences, while gender refers to the cultural construction of whether someone is male, female, or something else.
What did Margaret Mead's study of three societies reveal about gender roles?
Marked differences in male/female personality and behavior based on cultural norms.
What are some lingering gender stereotypes?
Beliefs that women should be meek and avoid appearing aggressive, and that men should hide their feelings to avoid seeming weak.
Why are women still underrepresented in many professions?
Because of the influence of gender stereotypes and gender stratification.
What emerges in the discussion of human sex-gender roles and sexuality?
Questions about nature versus nurture.
What is the process of sexual dimorphism?
The differences in physical characteristics between males and females.
What were the characteristics of the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli societies?
Arapesh: men and women were mild, parental, and responsive; Mundugumor: men and women were fierce and aggressive; Tchambuli: men were 'catty' and shopped, while women were energetic and managerial.
What coexists uneasily with images of sexually liberated women who work outside the home?
Lingering stereotypes about gender roles.
In gender stratification, what is often more obvious in regard to prestige than to wealth?
Gender stratification
What are some activities that can be done by men, women, or both?
Planting and harvesting
In roughly half of the societies studied, who did virtually no domestic work?
Men
What is the term used to describe the strong differentiation between the home and the outside world?
Domestic-public dichotomy
Which gender usually engages in hunting and warrior activities?
Men
Why do men generally make better hunters and fighters?
Bigger, stronger, greater mobility
What are two factors that can interfere with female mobility?
Nancy, childbirth, lactation, and carrying infants.
In matrilineal-matrilocal societies, how is descent traced?
Through females.
What tends to be relatively high in matrilineal and matrilocal societies?
Female status.
What is a matriarchy?
A system where women play a more prominent role than men in social and political organization.
What is the association between patrilineal-patrilocal societies and warfare?
Increased local warfare.
In patrilocal societies, where does a woman move after marriage?
To her husband's village.
What tends to enhance male prestige opportunities in patrilineal-patrilocal societies?
The concentration of related males in villages and solidified alliances for warfare.
In highland Papua New Guinea, what is the result of the patrilineal-patrilocal complex?
Relatively high gender stratification.
Who dominates the public domain in subsistence cultivation?
Men
What is patriarchy?
A political system ruled by men where women have inferior social and political status
What can violence against women stem from?
Patriarchal systems
Who is Malala Yousafzai?
An advocate for female education and the youngest person ever to receive the Nobel Peace Prize
