Physical education U4 SAC 3
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Physical education U4 SAC 3
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Cardiovascular aerobic chronic adaptations
Increased left ventricle and volume Decreased heart rate at rest and during submaximal workloads Increased capillarisation of the heart muscle Increased capillarisation of skeletal muscle Faster recovery heart rates Increased blood volume and haemoglobin levels Increased cardiac output during maximal exercise
Increased left ventricle size and volume
The amount of blood that is ejected out of the left ventricle per beat Aerobic training results in cardiac hypertrophy, thus increasing the size and volume of the left ventricle, increasing stroke volume , allowing more oxygen to be supplied to working muscles, thus increasing their ability to produce ATP aerobically, allowing athlete to work at higher intensities aerobically for longer, with fewer fatiguing factors (allows for removal of metabolic by-prodicts)
Decreased heart rate at rest and during submaximal workloads
heart rate: the amount of times the heart beats per minute Greater stroke volume means heart does not need to beat as often to supply the required oxygen, thus resting heart rate is lower and there is a slower increase in heart rate during exercise and a lower steady state is reached sooner
Increased capillarisation of the heart muscle
Increase number of capillaries that feed the heart Greater capillary supply means increased supply of blood and oxygen which allows the heart to beat more strongly and efficiently during both exercise and rest
Increased capillarisation of skeletal muscles
Increased number of capillaries surrounding skeletal muscles, mainly slow twitch muscle fibres Greater capillary supply means increased supply of blood and oxygen to the working muscles, increasing their ability to produce ATP aerobically, alllowing athlete to work at higher intensities aerobically for longer, with fewer fatiguing factors
Faster recovery heart rates
The heart rate returning to pre-exercise levels Greater efficiency of the cardiovascular system to produce ATP aerobically allows heart rate to return to pre-exercise levels in a shorter period of time compared to untrained individuals
Increased blood volume and haemoglobin levels
Haemoglobin - pigment in red blood cells that physically carries the oxygen Blood volume - Blood is made up of platelets, red blood cells, plasma and white blood cells Red blood cells may increase in number and the haemoglobin content and thus the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood may also rise, and the ratio of plasma in the blood cells increase, reducing viscosity of blood, allowing it to flow more smoothly through the blood vessels, thus allowing for more oxygen to be supplied to the working muscles
Increased cardiac output during maximal exercise
Total amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle of the heart per minute (heart rate x stroke volume) Remains the same at rest and during submaximal exercise As a result of increased stroke volume, allows for more oxygen to be supplied to working muscles, increasing the ability to produce ATP aerobically
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Increased Tidal volume
Amount of air inspired and expired per breath Aerobic training increases strength and endurance of respiratory muscles, increasing tidal volume, increasing oxygen available to be diffused into the alveoli capillaries and delivered to the working muscles, increasing the ability to resynthesize ATP aerobically
Decreased resting and submaximal respiratory frequency
The amount of breaths taken per minute Improved pulmonary efficiency and ability to extract oxygen from the alveoli results in less number of breaths taken per minute required at rest and submaximal intensities
Increased pulmonary ventilation during maximal exercise
Aerobic training results in more efficient and improved pulmonary ventilation At rest and submaximal intensities ventilation may decrease however at maximal intensity, ventilation will increase as a result of greater tidal volume and respiratory frequency.
Increased pulmonary diffusion
Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the alveoli and the capillaries where oxygen is extracted from the alveoli and carbon removed from the capillaries Aerobic training results in an increase in the surface area of the alveoli, increasing pulmonary diffusion
Increased ventilatory efficiency
Efficiency of the muscles responsible for breathing The muscles responsible for breathing requires less oxygen in order to work (intercostal muscles and diaphragm), thus leaving more oxygen available to be supplied to working muscles, increasing the ability to produce ATP aerobically
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Increased mitochondria and myoglobin
Mitochondria: site for aerobic ATP production Myoglobin: proteins in the muscle that transports oxygen between the bloodstream and the mitochondria Increased size and number of mitochondria which allows for the greater oxidation of fuels to produce ATP aerobically and increased myoglobin stores improves the ability of the muscles to extract oxygen and deliver it to the mitochondria
Increased a-VO2 difference
Difference of the concentration of oxygen in the arterial blood and venous return Trained aerobic athletes can extract more oxygen from their bloodstream into their muscles during both submaximal and maximal exercise, this results in a greater a-VO2 difference meaning there is more supply of oxygen to muscles, increasing ability for aerobic energy production
Increased muscular fuel stores and oxidative enzymes
Oxidative enzymes: responsible for metabolising fuel stores (glycogen and triglycerides) for ATP Muscular fuel stores: storage of glycogen and triglycerides Aerobic training increases storage of glycogen and triglycerides (muscular fuel stores) at the muscle, making energy production more readily available and oxidative enzymes increase, increasing ability for aerobic energy production
Increased oxidation of glucose and triglycerides
The muscular adaptation in muscle fibres allow for improved ability of aerobic system to metabolise glucose and triglycerides, thus athlete relies less on glycogen, allowing for glycogen sparing.
Adaptation of muscle fibre type
Aerobic training leads to improving the ability to recruit type 2b more in a manner that represents the more oxidative type 2a muscle fibre and fast twitch muscle fibres can take on the characteristics of slow twitch muscle fibres, thus improving aerobic performance Type I (slow twitch): oxidative fibres Type IIa (fast twitch): oxidative fibres Type IIb (fast twitch): glycolytic fibres
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Increased VO2 max
The total amount of oxygen that can be taken in, transported and used by the body per minute Aerobic training results in 5-30% increase in VO2max during maximal exercise due to a combination of chronic adaptations from the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular body systems Relative VO2 Max :takes into account body weight Absolute VO2 max: does not take into account body weight
Increased lactate inflection point (LIP)
The highest intensity point where lactate productiion and removal from the blood is equal A higher LIP is developed as a result of the aerobic chronic adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and use in the muscles
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Muscular hypertrophy
An increase in the cross-sectional size of a muscle due to an increase in size and number of myofibrils and protein filaments actin and myosin (mainly fast twitch fibres) Greater production of strength and power More pronounced in males compared to females due to higher testosterone levels
Increased muscular stores
Increased muscular stores of ATP, ATPase, creatine kinase enzymes and phosphocreatine Muscular hypertrophy is accompanied by increased stores of ATP and phosphocreatin (PC), increasing the capacity of the ATP-PC system allowing it to be used for longer. Increase in ATPase (helps break down and resynthesize ATP) and creatine kinase (help break down PC) allows for faster energy release and faster restoration of ATP
Increase glycolytic capacity
Increased muscular storage of glycogen and consequently increased levels of glycolytic enzymes Increases capacity of the anaerobic glycolysis system, thus can be used for longer
Increase in number of motor units recruited
Motor unit = motor neuron + muscle fibres it stimulates increase in number of motor units that can be recruited increases the strength and power that can be produced by a muscle
Increase lactate tolerance
An increase in the ability of the muscles to buffer the acid that accumulates from the production of hydrogen ions during an exercise Prevents the fast onset of fatigue as the accumulation of the acid is more distributed, thus allowing the athlete to continue producing ATP anaerobically
Cardiac hypertrophy
Anaeraobic training results in the hypertrophy of the heart muscle (enlargement) as the thicknesses of the ventricular walls increase, thus a more forceful contraction takes place, creating a more forceful ejection of blood from the heart, increasing buffering capacity
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Increase in muscle size and change in muscle structure
Increase in cross-sectional area of a muscle (hypertrophy) and increase in number of muscle fibres (hyperplasia) greater strength and force production
Muscle fibre type adaptations
Type 2 fast twitch fibres increase in size more than type 1 slow twitch fibres, thus explaining hypertrophy Muscle fibre type adaptations based on the specificity of the training program Increase strength and force production
Neural control
Without hypertrophy, neural adaptatons plays a significant role in increased force production, particularly in the early stages of strength improvements
Increased synchronisation of motor units
Increase in the ability for a number of different motor units to fire off at the same time and an improved ability to recruit larger motor units that require a larger simulus to activate Size principle: Motor units are recruited in order from smallest to largest More forceful muscular contraction with greater force production
Increase in firing rate of motor units
Increase in frequency of stimulation of a given motor unit Increases rate of force development (how quickly a muscle can contract maximally) rather than force production beneficial for rapid, explosive movements where maximal force is required in a very short period of time (speed and power)
Reduction in inhibitory signals
Inhibitory mechanisms exist in the neuromuscular system to provide an important protective reflex that limits excessive generation of force within a muscle Resistance training gradually overrides the protective reflex and reduces inhibitory mechanisms, allowing for greater force production
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Psychological skills training (PST)
helps athletes make adjustments to their actions, thoughts, feelings and physical sensations to better prepare
Quality and quantity of sleep
Sleep and rest plays an important role in muscle tissue growth and repair, immune function and allowing the brain to rest and recharge Quiet environment, meditation, at least 7 hours of sleep per night
Self-confidence
The belief an athlete has about their ability to execute a specific task or goal successfully
Choking
When an athlete fails to perform effectively under pressure conditions Athletes can build their self-confidence by: Working hard at training to improve their belief in their own ability Recording their success
Motivation
The reason for participating in an activity and dedicating effort to improvement Intrinsic motivation: comes from within, to perform an activity for its own sake and personal rewards such as enjoyment and satisfaction Extrinsic motivation: Has an external focus, to perform an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment
Goal Settting
Extermely effective motivational technique Should be: Specific Measurable Accepted Realistic Timeframed Exciting Recorded Outcome goals - related to overall result of a competition Performance goals - related to athletes own personal level of performance Process goals - related to performance goals, but athletes focus on the physical movement or game strategy aspects
Arousal
The readiness (physiological and psychological) an individual experiences when faced with a sporting situation or task Inverted-U Hypothesis: relationship between arousal and performance in an inverted U-shape Optimal arousal theory: There is substantial individual variability in arousal and performance relationship - each athlete will perform at their best if their level of arousal falls within their optimum functioning zone
Techniques to decrease arousal levels
Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) - A series of exercises based on tensing one muscle group at a time followed by a release of the tension - over time, athletes learn the difference between tension and relaxation to help better manage arousal levels Meditation - involves focusing the mind on a particular thing for a certain period of time to help reduce stress by calming the mind and relaxing the body before an event Stress inoculation training (SIT) - Involves exposing athletes to increasing levels of stress, building up to those they would likely experience during competition -develops their ability to cope with heightened pressure and control their responses and maintain focus Controlled breathing (lowering breathing rate) - lowering breathing rate to a controlled level to help reduce heart rate and blood pressure Calming self-talk - repeat calming statements or cue words to help reduce stress by calming the mind and relaxing the body Set routines - Having habits and set routines can help calm the body and mind as it is a familiar and predictable experience Biofeedback uses real-time information from their own bodies to help control body functions such as heart rate and breathing
Techniques to increase arousal levels
Elevated breathing rate - taking short sharp breaths can trigger the central nervous system into an increased state of awareness positive self talk - repeat positive self-statements and affirmations to remind them of what they need to concentrate on (can also increase intensity and energy) Energising imagery -visualise something uplifting Use of music feel motivated and inspired Act energetic pumping themselves up Pre-competition workout
Mental imagery (visualisation)
athlete visualise themselves performing a skill or competition event flawlessly, without the actual physical movement Athletes can draw on a past performance to better visualise themselves or create a specific scenario Improves neural pathways between brain and muscles
Simulation
The practice of training in an environment specifically designed to emulate actual conditions during competitions Should be used together with mental imagery for maximum effect
Concentration/Attention
The mental ability to focus on the task at hand while ignoring distractions such as anxiety, skill errors and taunting Strategies to improve concentration and attention - mental imagery and rehearsal to better execute the skill after visualising it - utilising a pre-performance routine to shift the focus from any distraction to task at hand Direction: Internal - athlete focuses inwardly External - athlete focuses on the environment outside of themselves Width: Narrow athelte focuses on one specific point Broad Athlete focusess on many things at once